
==== Front
Ultrason Sonochem
Ultrason Sonochem
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
1350-4177
1873-2828
Elsevier

S1350-4177(24)00281-5
10.1016/j.ultsonch.2024.107033
107033
Sustainable US Technology
Effect of sonoprocessing on the quality of plant-based analog foods: Compatibility to sustainable development goals, drawbacks and limitations
Gultekin Subasi Busra a
Bilgin Aysenur Betul b
Günal-Köroğlu Deniz b
Saricaoglu Beyza b
Haque Shafiul cd
Esatbeyoglu Tuba esatbeyoglu@lw.uni-hannover.de
e⁎
Capanoglu Esra capanogl@itu.edu.tr
be⁎
a Center for Innovative Food (CiFOOD), Department of Food Science, Aarhus University, Agro Food Park 48, Aarhus N 8200, Denmark
b Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Türkiye
c Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
d Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut 1102 2801, Lebanon
e Department of Molecular Food Chemistry and Food Development, Institute of Food and One Health, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Am Kleinen Felde 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany
⁎ Corresponding authors at: Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Development and Food Quality, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Am Kleinen Felde 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany. esatbeyoglu@lw.uni-hannover.decapanogl@itu.edu.tr
21 8 2024
11 2024
21 8 2024
110 10703322 10 2023
30 7 2024
15 8 2024
© 2024 The Author(s)
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Sonoprocessing (US), as one of the most well-known and widely used green processing techniques, has tremendous benefits to be used in the food industry. The urgent call for global sustainable food production encourages the usage of such techniques more often and effectively. Using ultrasound as a hurdle technology synergistically with other green methods is crucial to improving the efficiency of the protein shift as well as the number of plant-based analog foods (PBAFs) against conventional products. It was revealed that the US has a significant impact when used as an assistant tool with other green technologies rather than being used alone. It increases the protein extraction efficiencies from plant biomasses, improves the techno-functional properties of food compounds, and makes them more applicable for industrial-scale alternative food production in the circular economy. The US aligns well with the objectives outlined in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and Planetary Boundaries (PBs) framework, demonstrating promising outcomes in life cycle assessment. However, several challenges such as uncontrolled complex matrix effect, free radical formation, uncontrolled microbial growth/germination or off-flavor formation, removal of aromatic compounds, and Maillard reaction, are revealed in an increased number of studies, all of which need to be considered. In addition to a variety of advantages, this review also discusses the drawbacks and limitations of US focusing on PBAF production.

Keywords

Sonoprocessing
Ultrasound modification
Analog foods
Plant-based
Plant protein
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pmc1 Introduction

Consumer behavior regarding meat and dairy consumption has been influenced by factors such as pricing, economics, and religious beliefs [1]. Concerns are rising due to issues such as the presence of animal-origin pathogens (e.g., Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes), the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens resulting from the use of prophylactic antibiotics in animals, and the association with health conditions including high blood pressure, coronary diseases, and cancer [2]. Animal-based foods have general health risks and economic costs related to cold chain transportation/preservation as well as the need for the proper cooking techniques to mitigate the risk of pathogens.

Plant-based analog foods (PBAFs) are gaining popularity as alternatives to animal-based foods because of their health benefits, environmental sensitivity (including greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, and agricultural land use), and animal welfare considerations [3]. The nutritional advantages of PBAFs are associated with lower cholesterol and lipid levels in individuals, as well as a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and colon cancer [4]. Additionally, plant bioactive components have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Individuals with nutritional disorders such as allergies or intolerances to animal protein, often seek alternative protein sources due to severe immunological responses [5].

The NOVA classification system categorizes foods based on the extent and purpose of their industrial processing. Ultra-processed foods predominantly consist of ingredients manufactured specifically for industrial purposes through various techniques and processes across multiple industries [6]. Despite the growing popularity of PBAFs, they fall into the “highly processed” category, whereas meat and dairy products are categorized as “unprocessed/minimally processed”. For this reason, PBAFs are not preferred by some consumers due to negative health concerns [3]. Nevertheless, the PBAFs sector is rapidly expanding within the food industry. According to the Good Food Institute, sales of PBAFs across all categories surged by nearly 29 % from 2017 to 2019, reaching a market value of approximately $ 4.98 billion. Additionally, the global plant protein market is projected to exceed $ 35 billion by 2024. This category encompasses a diverse array of products aimed at replicating animal-based foods [7].

Food ingredients as alternatives to animal proteins (whey, gelatin, casein, etc.) are defined in the literature as meat/dairy replacers or analogs. While certain plant sources contain protein levels comparable to animal proteins, plant proteins have poor protein digestibility. The lack of sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine in pulses and lysine in cereals, and oilseeds diminishes the overall nutritional value of the final product [8], [9]. Essentially, PBAFs include homogenized extracts of plant matrices such as cereals (oats, rice), pseudo-cereals (quinoa), pulses (soybeans, chickpeas), nuts (almonds, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts), and seeds (sesame and sunflower seeds) to provide complementary amino acid profiles [5]. In plant-based meat analogs, the primary focus lies on the development of burger patties, minced products, and sausages, utilizing ingredients such as soybean, mushroom, and wheat gluten [10]. Soybean milk, oat milk, coconut milk, hemp milk, cocoa milk, and multigrain milk, among others, currently dominate the market for milk analogs. However, a significant drawback of plant-based milk analogs is their nutritional imbalance due to the composition of the proteins and micronutrients, which makes it challenging to promote them in the food industry [5]. The protein content in the plant-based milk analogs remains very low. For example, the milk analogs obtained from oats (13.5 % protein) and almonds (21.4 % protein) contain 0.8 % and 0.66 % protein, respectively [11].

Ultrasonication (US) or sonoprocessing, the application of high-frequency sound waves, has various effects on plant proteins. It enhances solubility by disrupting protein aggregates, potentially improving functionality and bioavailability. Moreover, it increases digestibility by breaking down protein structures into smaller peptides and amino acids. It also induces structural modifications such as unfolding or denaturation, impacting protein functionality and interactions within food matrices. Furthermore, ultrasonication can activate enzymes present in plant materials, further influencing protein modification.

Recently, US has garnered significant interest as a physical pretreatment method owing to its ability to notably enhance protein extraction and improve various physical, chemical, functional, and nutritional attributes. US treatment facilitates the disruption of cell matrices, assisting in extraction and modification processes, not only for proteins but also for PBAF matrices [11].

Key concerns with plant-based milk analogs include low protein solubility and reduced emulsion stability, which is especially important during storage. US also improves emulsification and foam stabilization properties, which are vital for food and beverage applications. It has been observed that emulsion droplets undergo shrinkage through the physical phenomenon of cavitation, leading to enhanced emulsion stability, while the pushing effect of partially denatured proteins on the droplets contributes to increased protein solubility [12], [13], [14].

PBAFs typically exhibit reduced formation of bioactive peptides and lower protein digestibility during digestion compared to conventional meat products. This disparity in digestion rates is attributed to factors including protein's secondary structure, dietary fiber content, the formation of disulfide bonds, and the apparent viscosity of digestion solutions [15], [16], [17]. US processing emerges as a promising technique to enhance the efficiency of protein extraction from plant sources, particularly for the development of meat substitutes. US processing disrupts protein aggregates, thereby improving protein solubility and potentially enhancing functionality and bioavailability. Additionally, it induces structural modifications such as unfolding or denaturation, influencing protein functionality within food matrices. Investigating methods to enhance protein digestion in plant-based meat analogs is deemed crucial. Through US processing, plant protein aggregates can be decomposed, leading to increased protein recovery, solubility, and digestibility, while also enriching the amino acid profile in the final product.

Off-flavor/bitterness (e.g., from soy, sesame seed, quinoa), color, several allergenic dietary proteins, and various antinutrients (e.g., trypsin inhibitors, phytates, tannins, lectins, and oxalates) are the other disadvantages of PBAFs compared to their animal-based counterparts [5], [18]. Efficient removal of off-flavors and antinutrient constituents is feasible through US treatments such as disruption of disulfide bonds and alterations in secondary structures of trypsin inhibitors, degradation of phytic acid, elimination of saponins and phenolic fractions, and the inactivation of the lipoxygenase enzyme [19], [20].

The transition from a linear to circular food production model aims to enhance sustainability, aligning with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) principles. US processing demonstrates compatibility with these goals by facilitating wastewater treatment, compound recovery from food waste, and biomass valorization, contributing to 11 out of 17 SDGs. Furthermore, adopting PBAF diets and employing green technologies like US processing are crucial steps towards mitigating environmental impact. However, synergistic efforts combining dietary changes, technological advancements, and waste reduction are necessary to achieve sustainability targets. Considerations for the utilization, processing, and future applications of non-conventional food sources include the presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxic compounds, lower protein quality compared to animal proteins, consumer resistance, and associated regulatory challenges.

This study aims to assess the mechanism and attributes of industrial-scale US treatment, alongside nutritional, functional, textural, and sensorial quality aspects. Additionally, the study explores the alignment of US technology with the United Nations’s (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and Planetary Boundaries (PBs).

2 Mechanism, parameters, and types of industrial-scale ultrasound treatment

The US is a physical treatment, which is a green and sustainable technology that uses high sound waves with frequencies of more than 16 kHz. Compared to conventional thermal processes, this method provides better efficiency, a higher rate, simpler application, lower cost, less equipment contamination, and higher quality and functionality of the processed goods [21]. In the food industry, the US is used directly in the food or by immersing it in an ultrasonic bath. Moreover, US-assisted practices such as filtration, defoaming, degassing, and depolymerization increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the conventional application. It is also used as an aid to effective processing in the food industry with processes such as demoulding, extrusion, cutting, freezing, crystallization, thawing, drying, sterilization/pasteurization, and emulsification [22].

High-power sonication, which has a low frequency (16 – 100 kHz) and high-power intensity (10 –1000 W/cm3), is widely used in the food industry. In an aqueous extraction medium, it works by initially creating cavitation bubbles and then violently collapsing them at high temperatures (5000 K) and pressures (1000 atm). This results in high shear energy and macroturbulence [23].

Cavitation is a fundamental phenomenon in ultrasound processing, which is the formation and collapse of bubbles within a liquid under the influence of high-speed pressure waves from the US. These bubbles, typically micrometer-sized and short-lived, experience compression and decompression cycles. There are two types: stable and transient cavitation (Fig. 1) [24]. Transient cavitation involves the erratic oscillation and rapid collapse of gas-filled bubbles within a single cycle, generating high temperatures, pressures, and shear forces that can damage cells and enzymes. In contrast, stable cavitation entails consistent bubble oscillation over many cycles, inducing microstreaming in the surrounding liquid, which can stress microbial species [22].Fig. 1 Stable (A) and Transient (B) Cavitation in Sonoprocessing: A schematic representation.

The US treatment induces mass transfer phenomena through the creation of mechanical forces such as bubble oscillation (pushing and pulling), microstreaming, micro-jetting, and shockwaves (Fig. 1). These mechanical effects disrupt cell walls, enabling enhanced mass transfer between the cell wall components and intracellular matrices [25], [26]. Cavitation-induced turbulence leads to the collapse of bubbles on the product's surface, generating microjetting, which enhances surface peeling, erosion, and particle breakdown. This increases the area exposed to ultrasonic fields, promoting compound release into the solvent. Heat transfer from bubbles to the medium is minimal due to localized and short-lived bubble formation. Microjetting introduced by cavitation facilitates liquid penetration into solids, enhancing mass transfer bidirectionally. The US-assisted extraction, conducted at low temperatures, preserves bioactive and thermally sensitive components (proteins) [25]. Consequently, extraction efficiency is improved, leading to beneficial alterations in protein functional properties [26]. Microbial inactivation can occur at lower intensity levels due to the formation of free radicals, localized heating, and thinning of cell membranes. Enzyme inactivation by the US is attributed to depolymerization, although spores exhibit greater resistance than vegetative forms. Processing variables such as ultrasonic wave type, duration, microorganism type, food volume, composition, and temperature are crucial [22].

However, the US also has chemical effects on food components (lipids, proteins, etc.), such as the disruption of chemical bonds and free radical formation. Due to the rupture of non-covalent bonds (hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions), proteins' secondary structures can be destroyed, and their tertiary and quaternary structures can be partially denatured without significantly altering their core structures because it is an inert application to covalent bonds [21].

Large-scale US are now utilized in the food industry primarily for the extraction of high-value bioactive compounds; they have not yet been applied to plant-based protein modifications on the industrial scale [21]. Although high-power sonication is mostly used in the food industry, its use at specific levels of treatment time has been linked to protein denaturation due to rising temperatures and the generation of reactive oxygen species, including free radicals and non-radical species. When water is employed as an ultrasonic extraction medium, cavitational forces are generated that can disintegrate water molecules into highly reactive radicals (i.e., hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen atoms), in addition to raising the temperature [23]. Oxidative alterations in tertiary and secondary protein structures involve modifications to amino acid side chains, such as thiol oxidation, aromatic hydroxylation, and carbonyl group formation. Hydroxyl radicals induce partial changes in protein molecular structures due to their convoluted nature [27]. Also, the energy efficiency of the US is higher than that of traditional treatments due to its shorter processing time and higher energy efficiency [5].

Several key parameters play critical roles in optimizing processing efficiency and product quality. These parameters include frequency, intensity (the energy delivered per unit area), treatment time, temperature, pressure, and solvent composition. Frequency determines the size and stability of cavitation bubbles, with higher frequencies leading to smaller and more localized effects [28]. High intensity or high power/short duration sonication with frequency ranges of 20 – 40 kHz is more advantageous and desired for the protein and other agri-food industries than low intensity/long time sonication. In contrast to low-intensity or low power/long duration US, which is more expensive and has been reported to induce temperature rise leading to protein denaturation, high intensity or high power/short duration sonication is more advantageous for the plant protein industry because it is less expensive and has limited effect on protein denaturation and loss of functional properties [23].

When processing plant-based beverages, the US enables minimal nutrient loss and the deactivation of endogenous enzymes, as well as harmful and spoilage microbes. Additionally, US treatments may result in rheological alterations [5]. Even though microbial resistance to the US is minimal at low pH, it alone is rarely adequate for the necessary microbial inactivation in juices [29].

By comprehending the underlying mechanisms of the US, such as cavitation-induced disruption of cell walls and enhancement of mass transfer, processors can tailor parameters like frequency, intensity, and treatment time to maximize the extraction of desired compounds from plant-based materials. Optimizing these parameters is essential not only for boosting yield and minimizing resource usage in industrial-scale production but also for enhancing product quality and sensory properties. Moreover, efficient use of the US relies on understanding energy needs and environmental effects. Parameter optimization can lower energy use and waste, aiding sustainability in food production. Scaling the US from lab to industrial settings demands a thorough comprehension of mechanisms. This knowledge helps engineers design equipment for consistent, large-scale production of PBAFs.

3 Quality of sonoprocessed plant-based analog foods

The US has been used for different purposes, such as membrane cleaning, homogenization, microbial or enzymatic activation, or inactivation in milk processing. Similarly, the US is used in plant-based milk production to enhance physical characteristics and decrease the count of pathogenic microorganisms [30]. However, in this section, the quality phenomena of sonoprocessed PBAFs have been limited and discussed as a subgroup of nutritional, functional, textural, structural, and sensorial properties, as illustrated in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.Fig. 2 Effects of ultrasound procedure on macronutrients.

Fig. 3 Quality of sonoprocessed plant-based analog foods.

3.1 Nutritional properties

Although sonication has been applied for several processing purposes of PBAFs, it may cause structural changes that result in nutritional and functional alterations. The proximate composition of PBAFs can be affected by the US. For example, cavitation created by US treatment may break down the cells, cause disruption of the cell wall, and increase the protein and total soluble content of PBAFs [30], [31]. In a study by Saxena et al. [20], an increase in the sugar and protein concentrations of peanut milk was observed up to 14.7 and 7.3 %, respectively after the US treatment. Solubilization is an important property regarding the bioavailability of food components. Therefore, the increase in solubilization improves the nutritional properties of food products. Similarly, Şen et al. [13] reported that the protein solubility of hazelnut-based milk increased after 10 min of US treatment while 5 min of treatment did not significantly alter the solubility compared to the control. On the other hand, in another study, the US treatments at different times (0, 60, and 90 min) and temperatures (40, 50, and 60 °C) caused a decrease in the total protein of soymilk, while treatments increased the total fat content up to 8 % [14]. Decrement in the total protein content can be related to protein denaturation, that causes a decrease in the extractability of soluble proteins.

Digestibility is another factor that is affected by the US and it might change depending on the application time of the US. The treatment may increase the digestibility up to a level however, a following diminishing might be observed if processing time extends [32]. This has been associated with the unfolding of protein by sonication that causes structural changes in the protein body. As a result of this, the exposed sites of protein become more accessible for enzymatic action, and thus digestibility of protein increases [33]. Examining the digestive properties of plant-based meat analog demonstrates that they have lower protein digestibility than meat from animals [17]. This is due to the fact that they have various protein structures and different protein types. However, sonication may change the protein structure and increase the protein digestibility of plant-based meat analog. For example, ultrasound treatment at varying intensities from 10% to 40% causes changes in the secondary structure of rapeseed napin and improves its in vitro protein digestibility [34]. Besides, plant-based meat analogs contain starch that might interact with protein and decrease its digestibility. However, sonication also has a positive effect on protein digestibility, which decreases after its interaction with starch [35].

The US treatment can also be effective in modulating the Maillard Reaction, which may cause a reduction of essential amino acids and protein digestibility. The US treatment increases the amount of 2-furoylmethyl-lysine which is an indicator that can be determined at the early stages of Maillard Reaction. In addition, US treatment removes oxygen and prevents oxidative cleavage of the enediol compared to conventional heating because of the cavitation effect [36].

3.2 Functional properties

Nowadays, people are interested in foods that have beneficial features including antioxidants, anti-inflammatory agents, and anti-diabetic effects. The PBAFs have been studied regarding their functional properties and enhancement. For instance, trypsin inhibitors are a drawback of soymilk since they lower the absorption of nutrients. However, the sonication process has a reduction effect on the trypsin-inhibitory activity of soymilk and enhances the digestibility of nutrients. Vanga et al. [37] reported that trypsin inhibitory activity of soymilk decreased with the US treatment (400 W, 25 kHz, 16 min) up to 50 %. Besides, it is also an effective way to create nanoparticles for developing a functional plant-based milk that contains soymilk-nutraceuticals nanocomplex. For instance, a study analyzed the effect of US treatment on the creation of icariin nanoparticles carried by soymilk. The results showed that the US treatment could greatly improve encapsulation efficiency with a shorter treatment period (20 min), leading to a maximum encapsulation efficiency of 89.67 % [38]. This study also indicated that the bioavailability of icariin can be enhanced. In addition, US treatment of soybean or its slurry led to an increase in the isoflavone content of soymilk which is related to its pharmacological and antioxidant properties. However, this effect was influenced by the US treatment conditions and food matrix [39].

3.3 Textural and structural properties

The texture and structure of newly designed PBAFs are crucial for consumer acceptance and perception quality. The primary factor in producing PBAFs is their accurate textural and structural, characterization which are supposed to mimic conventional animal-based food products. However, the main problem for food manufacturers is frequently the production of meat, egg, and milk analogs’ quality properties that are expected to be acceptable in terms of flavor and texture. Various production techniques (extrusion, spinning, shearing, 3D printing, pulsed electric field, and US) can provide textural and structural impacts such as a diverse and stable textural profile, desired viscosity, and appearance, hence, increasing the formation potential of PBAFs in a more sustainable way [40], [41]. These effects are based on the initial ingredients and/or raw materials (proteins, oils, and fats) [42]. Fat substitutes (oleogels, hydrogels) and polymers (alginate, aloe vera gel, and inulin) can alter the appearance, flavor, and texture of PBAFs in case they are introduced to the system throughout production [43]. In fact, among the ingredients, proteins are a more prominent factor in structure–function interactions than other ingredients in terms of their functional characteristics, taste binding, viscosity, gelation, and texturization [40]. Sonication effects on textural and structural properties for PBAFs have been evaluated mainly related to protein molecule properties, which are subdivided into the protein's secondary and tertiary structures, surface hydrophobicity, free and total sulfhydryl contents, particle size, and zeta potential [44], [45], [46], [47], [48].

3.3.1 Secondary and tertiary structure of the ultrasonicated plant-based protein

The structure of proteins is crucial to forming good quality plant-based milk, egg, and meat analogs. The protein moieties within the analog food biomasses must be unfolded, cross-linked, and aligned to form microscopic and macroscopic fibers [49]. By applying the US, the primary structure mostly stays unaltered [50]. However, by cavitation and shear force of US treatment, proteins' secondary and tertiary structures result in cross-linking and aggregation due to oxidation and disruption of hydrogen and disulfide bonds (SS). Thus, physical and structural properties like zeta (ζ) potential, conductivity, particle size, and rheologic properties were changed [28], [51]. Also, disruption of protein–protein interaction and protein denaturation might occur in PBAFs after sonication treatment [52].

The secondary structure is composed of two main conformations, such as α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures. Polypeptide units of the folded chain that are linked together by hydrogen bonds give the structure the appearance of being folded or pleated [53]. The tertiary structure, which is a further level of secondary ones, refers to a 3D structure of polypeptide units. The folding and shaping of a protein are due to internal hydrophobic interactions [54]. Cavitation of the US breaks down cellular matrices and attacks cells. It may change protein molecular structures by rupturing hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Thus, protein interactions can be disrupted by sonication, which results in the loss of structural integrity and altered functioning.

Several studies have shown that the US affected and altered the secondary and tertiary structures as molecular conformations of plant proteins such as cereals, legumes, nuts, and pulses [55], [56], [46], [13], [57], [47], [58], [59], [48], [60], [45]. In a study, buckwheat proteins were broken down into smaller fragments by sonication at 20 kHz, which also caused surface alterations [45]. Also, soy flour/flakes, chickpea flour, and kidney bean flour were sonicated at high power US (20 kHz, 750 W) by [44]. Significant changes were observed in the secondary structure (α-helix, β-strands, β-turns, and unordered groups) of kidney bean protein. Thus, partial protein unfolding and secondary structural modifications were obtained by the US. To assess functional changes, it is crucial to consider the secondary structure of proteins [44].

The structure and conformation of rice bran protein concentrate were altered after sonication at 20 kHz with 20 – 40 % amplitude for 30 min. Protein aggregates were raised by higher amplitude sonication. Also, the rice bran protein concentrate‘s secondary structure (β-sheet) was changed by the sonication treatment, with a rise in β-sheets and random coils and a decrease in α-helix and β-turns [48]. Conversely, the total amount of α-helix was increased in pumpkin seed protein isolates by high-intensity US (20 kHz, 500 W, 30 min) [61]. In contrast to all, high-intensity US (20 kHz, 30 min) altered the tertiary structure of the pea protein isolate, while the secondary structure (α-helix, β-sheet, β-turn, and random coil) did not change [60]. Besides, in most studies related to secondary structure changes by sonication, α-helix, and β-turns were decreased, while random coil and β-sheet were increased, as shown in Table 1. This may result in the breakdown of structural conformations (such as α-helix and β-turns), which may lead to a subsequent conformational shift and protein unfolding [52]. Also, smaller aggregations and disaggregations, holes on the smooth surface of proteins, and some disordered structures were formed due to micro-streaming, high shearing, and turbulent forces of US cavitation’s mechanical action [48]. A series of modifications to proteins may alter the textural functioning of materials for proteins, depending on the US parameters [62]. Since destructive oxidation processes are encouraged by the US, it is advantageous for components' texture and may improve the flavor of plant-based milk [63]. Moreover, structural changes (secondary and tertiary) cause induced functional properties such as increases in extraction yields [44], foaming ability [60], digestibility [45], [32], and enhancement of solubility [55] in pea protein and buckwheat protein isolates and proteins from chickpea, kidney bean, and soybean.Table 1 Sonication effects on secondary structure component of plant-based proteins.

Protein	α-Helix	β-Sheets	β-Turns	Random coil	References	
Buckwheat protein isolates	↑	↓	↓	↑	[45]	
Chickpea protein isolates	↓	↑	↑	↓	[57]	
Chickpea proteins	↓	↑	↔	−	[44]	
Kidney bean proteins	↓	↓	↓	−	[44]	
Moringa oleifera seed water-soluble protein	↑	↓	↓	↑	[56]	
Rice bran protein concentrate	↓	↑	↓	↑	[48]	
Sesame protein isolates	↓	↑	↑	↑	[66]	
Soybean (black) Aqua soya proteins	↓	↓	−	↑	[55]	
Soybean proteins	↔	↔	↔	−	[44]	
Sunflower (dephenolized) protein isolates	↓	↑	−	−	[59]	
Sunn hemp protein isolates	↓	↑	↓	↑	[47]	

3.3.2 Surface hydrophobicity (H0)

Proteins' surface hydrophobicity is a crucial structural property. It is used to assess any conformational changes in proteins and determine if the structural changes to the protein are correlated with changes in functional properties [48]. Protein molecules' internal hydrophobic connections were disrupted by sonication, which also caused molecular unfolding. As a result, more hydrophobic groups and regions rose to the surface of the molecules [60]. Studies showed that sonication caused increased surface hydrophobicity of proteins in PBAFs [46], [48]. Also, an increase in surface hydrophobicity and aggregation of proteins in PBAFs was observed by high-power US (20 – 100 kHz) [27]. Thus, the US treatment drastically reduced the water binding capacity due to the increase in surface hydrophobicity. This situation can reduce its applicability in meat analogs to preserve its meat-like texture and juiciness [64].

3.3.3 Free and total sulfhydryl contents

The sulfhydryl (SH) groups distributed both within and outside of a protein are referred to as the total SH group [65]. Subjecting plant proteins to the US, the alteration in the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins led to rising total SH content [57]. The amount of SH groups on the surface of samples increased with sonication, which might be due to the cavitation impact disrupting the disulfide link of the protein. Thus, the rising of free SH points to a partial unfolding-related change in protein structure [60], [44]. An increment was observed for free and total SH of sunn hemp proteins after sonication (20 kHz, 500 W power, 40 – 50 % amplitude, 10, 20, and 30 min) [47]. Similar results were shown for sesame seed proteins which were treated by high-intensity US (20 kHz, 95 % amplitude, 4, and 6 min) [66]. According to this study, surface hydrophobicity, free, and total SH contents of sesame seed proteins increased. Following the elevation of frequency to 40 kHz (350 W, and 0 – 60 min) for the US treatment, free SH concentrations increased as well [55]. However, although total SH content rose as US power increased, free SH content decreased [61]. Moreover, both free and total SH of cactus seed proteins declined after sonication (450 W) [58]. Sonication time could yield with an increase or decrease in the amount of free and total SH content. Thus, Zhang et al. [67] demonstrated that SH content fluctuated in wheat gluten regarding sonication times [13]. Therefore, the discrepancies in SH contents may arise from sonication times and process conditions, and the purity of the samples.

3.3.4 Particle size and zeta potential

Particle size of food (dispersed) systems (emulsions, suspensions, and foams) has a significant effect on their overall physicochemical characteristics, such as their stability, appearance, and flavor [68]. Also, particle size and surface hydrophobicity are responsible for improvements in functionality such as solubility and foaming capabilities [41]. The US treatment improves the physical characteristics of plant-based milk, including its particle size, viscosity, and physical stability [69]. US treatment at 20 kHz caused a reduction in the particle size and viscosity of coconut grain milk [70], raw and roasted hazelnut (with heat treatment) [13], and almond milk analogs [71] due to the shearing effect. As PBAFs, the particle size of protein isolates such as sesame protein isolates [66], pea protein isolates [60], sunn hemp protein isolates [47], and album protein isolates [46] were reduced by US treatment at 20 kHz. Also, US treatment at 40 kHz reduced the particle size of black soybean proteins, and distribution became more homogeneous because sonication disrupted the intermolecular connections [55]. Thus, the US has been used successfully to reduce particle size, standardize particle size, and modify proteins. Meanwhile, this processing has been found to promote fluidity and stability by reducing the distribution and particle size in extracts of plant-based milk analogs [72].

Zeta potential is also a critical parameter for structural, textural as well as functional properties of PBAFs for maintaining the stability of particles in dispersion [28]. High zeta potential often results in a stronger electrostatic attraction between protein molecules and vice versa; as a result, it helps to keep the protein dispersion stable [45]. Jin et al. found protein aggregation and reduction of negative charge residues on the protein surfaces due to decreasing buckwheat protein isolates’ zeta potential by sonication. In addition, they found that longer sonication times (10, 20, and 30 min) resulted in rougher protein surfaces due to the extension of cavitation time observed via scanning electron microscopy. However, US-treated (20 kHz, 500 W, 40 and 50 % amplitude) sunn hemp protein isolates’ zeta potential was increased from − 18.5 to − 31.8 mV compared to the control (−16.20 mV) [47]. According to the results of the sonication, these protein isolates may be used in a variety of food applications in place of animal proteins.

In summary, changes in particle size and zeta potential resulted in the improvement of solubility [13], [66] and digestibility [45], as well as excellent emulsion stability, and foaming performance [55].

3.4 Sensorial properties

Sensory properties, which are evaluated as a crucial food quality parameter, of PBAFs require a high level of attention since represent the human senses' perception. For instance, legumes and soy-derived products as meat analogs have a pungent aftertaste or complete lack of flavor due to lipoxygenases, saponins, and isoflavones activity [49], [52]. Thus, undesirable attributes are eliminated using physical and chemical treatments such as sonication. In the literature, there are several studies related to the effects of sonication on PBAF’s sensory qualities. For instance, sensory properties of sorghum, pearl millet, peanut, and barnyard millet-based milk were evaluated after a combination of US (180 W, 20 min) and germination treatments. The sensory profile revealed that the combined treatments enhanced the milk properties. All samples were acceptable in flavor, color, sweetness, and fragrance, but consistency had an average score. It has also been found that barnyard millet milk had an unpleasant aftertaste [73]. Yuliarti et al. [74] have also demonstrated that pea protein improved the hardness, chewiness, and viscoelastic properties of meat analogs[45].

Along with sensorial properties, color is a pivotal property of plant-based meat, egg, and milk analogs, which influence customers' sensory impressions and acceptance at the very first glance. Although color is a marker of functional and nutritional changes in food that might be formed during processing, both industry and academia primarily employ color as a quality control milestone since every color change might give information about the impact of processing conditions. After sonication, the color of plant-based milk from milk sorghum, pearl millet, peanut, and barnyard millet was evaluated as acceptable by 26 untrained panelists after the sensory analysis with a hedonic test [13]. Also, as the values of lightness, redness, and yellowness grew, rice bran protein concentrates' color became brighter after sonication treatment at a lower amplitude of 20 % [48]. Similarly, increase in lightness and optimization of yellowness in almond milk analogs were obtained by US treatment (20 kHz, 300  W) [71]. High-intensity US treatment significantly increased the L* and b* color values of album seed protein isolates from 51.7 to 56.4 and 9.5 to 13.6, respectively. However, a* values and whiteness index of album seed protein isolates have been decreased from 0.6 to 0.26 and 23.2 to 15.6 [46]. Furthermore, the L* value of the pumpkin-seed protein isolates was increased from 56.72 to 58.17 by US (500  W) treatment as well [61]. However, a* and b* values decreased from −0.61 to −0.63 and from 0.89 to 0.69, respectively. Several reported studies have shown that sensorial properties of PBAFs can be maintained by sonication processing. It was concluded that in addition to its effect on functional properties such as emulsification, solubility, and foaming, US treatment can also improve the overall acceptability of foods while maintaining their sensory qualities [62].

In conclusion, sonoprocessed PBAFs have the potential to have good nutritional, functional, textural, structural, and sensorial properties, as shown in Fig. 3. However, the production of these foods requires careful consideration of ingredients, production techniques, and processing conditions.

4 US compatibility to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and Planetary Boundaries (PBs)

Upgrading the food production system, not only the PBAFs but also the conventional products, from “resource-production-consumption-disposal” a.k.a. linear (one-way) economic model to a circular (closed loop) model targets to make the food production more sustainable (Fig. 4) [75]. The circular model aims to utilize any type of disposal within the production chamber continuously, considering the waste management, energy efficiency, and environmental impacts while the linear model does not have such approaches.Fig. 4 Linear (A) and circular (B) economy models [110]. The intervention of US treatment through the circular economy is identified with wavy arrows.

SDGs were introduced to the world by the UN in 2015 as an action to promote the authorities and stakeholders for the eradication of poverty and hunger worldwide. Non-thermal food processing techniques, as well as the US, are in excellent agreement to transform the food production tradition in the same way as the UN, meeting most of the SDGs [76], [77]. Circular production model interpenetrated with SDGs targeting mostly common achievements and it is expected from food producers as well as scientists to develop better adapted methods to fulfill the sustainable goals. Wastewater treatment ability, recovery of valuable compounds from food wastes and by-products, biomass valorization, green extraction, and assistance for drying are some of the technological purposes of the US, and those are highly compatible with the sustainability phenomenon [78].

Based on its capability as a useful and sustainable tool for alternative food processing, it is declared that US technology contributes to 11 out of 17 SDGs; Goal 1 – “No poverty”, Goal 2 – “Zero Hunger”, Goal 3 – “Good Health and Well-being”, Goal 6 – “Clean Water and Sanitation”, Goal 7 – “Affordable and Clean Energy”, Goal 8 – “Decent Work and Economic Growth”, Goal 9 – “Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure”, Goal 12 – “Responsible Consumption and Production”, Goal 14 – “Life Below Water”, Goal 15 – “Life on Land”, and Goal 17 – “Partnership for the Goals” [77], [79] (Fig. 5).Fig. 5 Sustainable Development Goals of UN that sonoprocessing meets.

In order to measure how a processing approach fulfills the circular economy, a kind of “circularity metric” was employed to create an objective and standardized evaluation specialized for any novelty, technology, and/or business model that has been conducted in food production [77]. This is called a “Life Cycle Assessment” and briefly aims to compare the outcome of conducted novelty quantitatively with the conventional one. It is a well-established and standardized framework to quantify the environmental impact of a proposed product, process, and/or service covering every step from beginning to end [80].

In a study, the US assistance effect on phenolic extraction from chicory by-products using a conventional method (20 – 60 °C with ethanol 60 % (v/v)) was investigated to figure out how US treatment reduced the environmental impact using LCS methodology [81]. It was pointed out that US assistance decreased the environmental impact by 25 %, which is significant but limited compared to the temperature and solvent influence. Similarly, US-assisted phenolic extraction with mechanical stirring from acerola and jambolana pomaces was compared with conventional solid-liquid extraction, heated conventional solid-liquid extraction, and static US-assisted extraction, and its environmental impact was found to lower up to 3-fold rather than other methods [82]. US treatment is one of the excellent green processing methods yielding low environmental impact.

On the other hand, the PBs concept proposes the limits in a scientific manner concerning human interventions to destabilize the earth system at the planetary scale [83]. These limits are classified into nine groups that are being developed and/or altered in light of recent scientific improvements (Fig. 6). The green boundaries represent safe operational spaces while red zones indicate the risk with a growing magnitude towards the axis. Feeding the increasing world population sustainably without crossing the limits requires urgent calls for food waste reduction, innovative agricultural applications, and radical dietary changes [84]. PBs have a diverse set of groups covering every industrial production and/or global action and the food production industry is intersecting most of the determined groups.Fig. 6 Nine Planetary Boundaries [12].

None of the concepts like circular economy, SDGs, LCA, and PBs are distinctive from each other and serve the same high purpose, sustainable food processing. It is a fact that innovative food processing approaches have significant influences on sustainable food production [85]. On the other hand, changing dietary habits towards more PBAFs on conventional animal-based styles as much as possible for the global population is another urgent action for this purpose [84]. The PBAF shift and using a green processing tool such as the US have a great fit for multiple common purposes with the mentioned methodologies [86]. However, in a study, it was shown that changing dietary habits influenced environmental indicators the lowest impact was observed with PBAF [87]. The difference between the conventional diet relative to the lowest impact PBAF diet was around 2.5-fold. Ridoutt et al. also indicated that changing dietary habits might cause a significant 15 % reduction in environmental impact in terms of climate, water scarcity, and cropland-scarcity footprints however this ratio is insufficient to achieve planetary boundary targets [88]. Furthermore, Springmann et al. claimed that no single action and no single measure is enough (when considering dietary changes, improved technologies and management, reduction of food loss and waste production together) to keep the environmental impact as desired and only their synergistic effects might be sufficient for mitigation [89].

The PBAF shift and using green processing tools such as the US are not the unique golden keys to decrease the environmental impact alone however their contributions are significant and demand further investigations.

5 Drawbacks and limitations

Together with all the explained benefits of the US for varying purposes, this technology has some limitations of which every user should be aware. Some of those drawbacks are well-known chronic issues that are still being addressed, while others have been brought to light through recent scientific outreaches. Pros and cons should be considered simultaneously while applying US processing on plant-based (also animal-based) food biomasses (Fig. 7).Fig. 7 Overall challenges and drawbacks of US processing in the light of recent literature data.

The microbial and enzymatic activity of processed food materials is of great importance due to the safety, nutritional, and sensorial quality concerns, particularly over a defined shelf life/storage period. Pasteurization/sterilization accuracy, processing effect on bacterial spores, and various enzymatic activities (lipoxygenase, peroxidase, urease, etc.) of US treatment on PBAF systems were not covered in this study. Nevertheless, it is crucial to highlight and criticize the latest status. Despite the known and well-explored advantages of US treatment on extraction, and improved nutritional and functional quality of food materials as discussed extensively in the previous sections, US treatment does not provide a complete pasteurization/sterilization efficacy on food pathogens, spore-forming organisms, and spores like some other non-thermal processing methods [90]. The US treatment induces mechanisms such as cavitation, push, pull, jetting, streaming, and translation mechanisms on the living cell membrane, resulting in deleterious effects [91]. However, the achieving complete destruction of these mechanisms over all potential microorganisms and spores in the food biomass solely through the US is unlikely due to numerous operational parameters and the initial microbial status of the biomass [90]. Combinations of various levels of energy input, created/arranged holding temperature, frequency of pulses, on/off spans of pulses, with/without agitation are the operational parameters while initial microbial load, type(s) of the targeted microorganism, status of gram-positive/-negative, sample volume are the essential factors belong to the processing biomass. To deal with inefficient microbial load reduction, US treatment in conjunction with other thermal/non-thermal techniques is recommended and practiced [92].

A similar phenomenon also matters in the same way for plant-based milk analogs. Combinations of varying treatments (thermal and/or non-thermal), as well as operational parameters, should be optimized to define more energy-efficient and greener US treatment [5]. Combined application of US with other processing techniques such as microfiltration, ultraviolet, ozone treatment, or pulsed electric field is more efficient in reducing microbial load and even chemical contaminants from food biomasses [93], [94]. Still, there is a huge know-how gap in the literature about the US affecting mechanism on microorganisms and enzyme activities in addition to the inconsistent data due to the variety of distinctive coupling and operational parameters choices [95]. As Taha et al. criticized in their review study, the significant elimination influence of US treatment for toxins and pesticides in addition to microbial and enzymatic diminishment is very much accomplishable in the case of further processing optimizations [96]. Another exciting benefit of US treatment is the capability of diminishing the allergenicity and antinutrient compounds in the plant proteins when applied as a pre-treatment using varying parameters [27]. Optimization of processing conditions might mitigate the incompatible and controversial data in the literature, especially for enzymatic and microbial inactivation, furthermore, might help to design and develop more feasible, up-scaled industrial equipment and produce foods with desired safety criteria [5]. Process optimization will help to reveal a mutual/common approach for many researchers on the focus of US food processing to solve incomparable data problems consisting of comprehensive US parameters and raw material information. This phenomenon might be named a lack of uniformity problem [97].

Depending on the processing biomass and properties of the media, the US might induce some reactions such as fermentation, germination, and glycosylation (Maillard reaction) [96]. Those reactions and their products can either be desired as a part of a particular production [91], [98] where the US is being used on purpose to induce aromatic compound production and/or decrease the total fermentation/germination period however, this might not be always a desired scenario for every product. The mentioned reactions have critical importance regarding the sensorial and nutritional attributes of the exposed product and require further consideration before/during the US processing.

Over-processing risk during US treatment might be encountered as another critical issue, particularly for PBA protein modifications targeting to increase their techno-functional properties. Harsh US application (higher energy input, longer treatment time, no/short off-spans) might increase the protein extraction efficiency from plant biomass and solubility of the isolated protein however this might induce the concurrent extraction of excessive amounts of antinutrient compounds with the protein bodies. Over-processing might end up with the loss of nutritional quality hence should be avoided with process optimization [32]. Furthermore, with or without overprocessing, US treatment-induced free radical compounds might propagate redox oxidations that could end up with the formation of aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, alcohols, and sulfur-containing compounds which are known as off-flavor contributors [99]. To the best of our knowledge, a well-established investigation framing the volatile/off-flavor formation or mitigation potential of US treatment for existing off-flavor attributes for plant biomasses during US treatment is missing in the literature.

Molecular level interactions of micro and macro food components have mostly been neglected during any types of food processing as well as US treatments due to possessing highly complex reactions [100]. In the literature, several studies regarding individual food component interactions such as protein-phenolics, protein-lipids, and protein–polysaccharides exist [101], [102]. It should be noted that the outreaches of these studies might be a bit far away from representing a real food system and highly complex molecular level interactions of macro/micro components when exposed to the US rather than a binary system [100]. Likewise, US forces can induce covalent interactions of other existing dietary components in the media with protein moieties as a result of sulfhydryl and/or amino group changes therefore free radical formations [103]. The newly formed covalent interactions as well as revealed free radicals should be critically concerned as a part of structural protein modification of sonochemical effect due to its contribution to sensorial and bioavailability attributes of the processed food material. Furthermore, all these mentioned complex interactions between inherent macro/micro-components as well as subsequently formed covalent bonds and free radicals will influence the overall structure of the food matrix [104], [105]. Molecular interactions within food biomasses during US exposure is a dynamic phenomenon that leads to a continuous loop of disruption-formation of varying bonds and is indigent for further studies. Lastly, those dynamic interactions in the complex food matrix limit the present knowledge of the US effect on nutrient bioavailability status. As explained in the previous sections, US processing was determined to increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of some desired nutrients such as proteins and phenolic compounds in plant-based raw materials [106], [107] however, our present perception of dietary components and food matrix interaction during US processing is a bit far away from a comprehensive understanding [100]. Particularly, the limited information regarding the US processing effect on plant protein digestibility and amino acid composition in the literature requires in-depth investigations [108].

The most well-known limiting issue of US processing is its compatibility only with liquid and/or semi-liquid media, ensuring the flow turbulence and homogeneity of sonic waves throughout the biomass [100]. The US treatment is not suitable for solid samples for the proposed processing benefits. Furthermore, the availability of industrial-scale US equipment is still a challenging issue despite the recent developments to produce larger-scale devices that enable to process of up to 32 and 12 m3/h samples for emulsification and extraction, respectively [109]. It should be noted that investigation for the US matrix effect on real complex food systems must be addressed not only with lab-scale US treatment but also with industrial-scale processed samples to reveal more realistic results for better industrial applicability.

As Taha et al. pointed out in their review study, the properties of the used sonoprobe are of extreme importance, particularly for processing food samples [96]. The compatibility of probe material with the processing biomass should be investigated, optimized, and predicted for extended usage lifespans. Any risks for corrosion, abrasion, and releasing dangerous and toxic metallic compounds should be estimated for both lab- and industrial-scale usages for each piece of equipment for a fulfilled avoidance.

6 Conclusion

Considering all the drawbacks and challenges of US treatment explained in this review comprehensively, the intense potential of this technology encourages the researchers to dig deep and figure out the required solutions for more rational applicability of sonoprocessing particularly focusing on PBAF processing. In line with the majority of the expectations of UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (11 out of 17) and Planetary Boundaries (4 out of 9) as well as yielding promising scores for life cycle assessment methodology, sonication proves its excellence for green food processing. US technology has great potential and compatibility for studies on PBAF processing and product development. In order to fulfill this potential, declared limitations and drawbacks such as application effect on intramolecular interaction in complex matrices, free radical formation, better upscaling, and well-depicted effect on nutrient and flavor qualities should be addressed in the most possible future. The influence of US treatment (both at lab and industrial scale) on the off-flavor formation and/or mitigation potential is lacking in the literature and needs to be addressed particularly for PBAF production processes, at any level. On the other hand, further studies are required as milestones to resolve complex micro/macromolecular interactions mimicking the real food systems during US processing. It should always be considered that the effect of US treatment is extremely dependent on processing parameters, the presence/absence of any other co-treatment, and the applied food matrix hence, different results may be expected. So, attempts to increase homogeneity for the processing conditions/parameters should be made in the future to propose the US technology as a robust and reproducible treatment for food processing, particularly for PBAF formulations.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Busra Gultekin Subasi: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization. Ayşenur Betül Bilgin: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation. Deniz Günal-Köroğlu: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation. Beyza Saricaoglu: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization. Shafiul Haque: Writing – review & editing. Tuba Esatbeyoglu: Writing – review & editing. Esra Capanoglu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments

Esra Capanoglu would like to thank the 10.13039/100005156 Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for awarding a research fellowship. The publication of this article was funded by the open access fund of Leibniz Universität Hannover.
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