
==== Front
Mol Med Rep
Mol Med Rep
Molecular Medicine Reports
1791-2997
1791-3004
D.A. Spandidos

39239741
10.3892/mmr.2024.13323
MMR-30-5-13323
Review
Role of bariatric surgery in improving diabetic cardiomyopathy: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives (Review)
Song Ke 12
Liang Dianyuan 12
Xiao Dingqi 2
Kang Aijia 2
Ren Yixing 123
1 Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan 637000, P.R. China
2 Institute of Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Intestinal Diseases, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan 637000, P.R. China
3 Department of General Surgery, Chengdu XinHua Hospital Affiliated to North Sichuan Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan 610000, P.R. China
Correspondence to: Professor Yixing Ren, Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, 1 Maoyuan South Road, Shunqing, Nanchong, Sichuan 637000, P.R. China, E-mail: 972201@qq.com yixingren@nsmc.edu.cn
11 2024
06 9 2024
06 9 2024
30 5 19919 6 2024
20 8 2024
Copyright: © 2024 Song et al.
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM), a significant complication of diabetes mellitus, is marked by myocardial structural and functional alterations due to chronic hyperglycemia. Despite its clinical significance, optimal treatment strategies are still elusive. Bariatric surgery via sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass have shown promise in treating morbid obesity and associated metabolic disorders including improvements in diabetes mellitus and DCM. The present study reviews the molecular mechanisms by which bariatric surgery improves DCM, offering insights into potential therapeutic targets. Future research should further investigate the mechanistic links between bariatric surgery and DCM, to evaluate the benefits and limitations of these surgical interventions for DCM treatment. The present study aims to provide a foundation for more effective DCM therapies, contributing to the advancement of patient care.

bariatric surgery
diabetic cardiomyopathy
mechanism
endoplasmic reticulum stress
myocardial glucose uptake
The National Natural Science Foundation of China82370601 The Northern Sichuan Medical College Clinical School Affiliated Hospital Scientific Research Development Plan Project2022JC002 This work was supported by The National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 82370601) and The Northern Sichuan Medical College Clinical School Affiliated Hospital Scientific Research Development Plan Project (grant no. 2022JC002).
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pmc1. Introduction

Diabetes mellitus, an age-related metabolic disorder of escalating global prevalence, is a formidable clinical challenge to public health, with the number of affected individuals expected to reach 783 million by 2045 (1). The chronic nature of diabetes, with the associated insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia, can precipitate a distinct form of cardiomyopathy, diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM), that develops independently of traditional risk factors such as coronary artery disease and hypertension (2). As a serious and under-recognized complication of diabetes, the pathogenesis of DCM is complex and multifactorial (3,4). DCM is characterized by an initial phase of myocardial fibrosis and diastolic dysfunction, which may evolve into progressive systolic impairment and, ultimately, heart failure (5,6). Advanced cardiac dysfunction in DCM is a principal determinant of mortality among diabetic patients (7–9).

Bariatric surgery, a transformative metabolic intervention, is a pivotal treatment for severe obesity, which is uniquely capable of inducing sustained weight loss and significantly ameliorating complications (10). This surgical approach surpasses conventional pharmacotherapy in its ability to enhance insulin sensitivity, stabilize blood glucose and lipid levels, and ameliorate diabetes-related complications (2). Mingrone et al (11) found that Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and biliopancreatic diversion could effectively alleviate DCM. English and Williams (12) found that numerous patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus complicated with other cardiovascular diseases can reduce or completely stop cardiovascular medications after undergoing bariatric surgery. Improvement in left ventricular structure and function, visceral fat and reverse myocardial remodeling after bariatric surgery may be beneficial for the recovery of DCM (13,14). The present review will discuss recent research advances in bariatric surgery to improve DCM (Fig. 1), with the aim to aid the understanding of the pathogenesis of DCM, explore new therapeutic targets and develop more targeted drugs.

2. Bariatric surgery-a procedure originally developed to treat obesity

Bariatric surgery was initially referred termed weight-loss surgery (15). Obesity became increasingly prominent in the mid-20th century, but strategies to curb this worldwide epidemic were limited (16). At that time, oral medications (such as ephedrine and amphetamine) were often prescribed to help obese patients lose weight, but were usually inadequate to achieve meaningful and sustainable results. By contrast, metabolic and weight-loss surgery is performed only on a small number of eligible patients but has been shown to be the most effective intervention to ensure significant weight loss and amelioration of associated comorbidities (such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia and cancer) (17–20).

In addition to treating obesity, bariatric surgery is more advantageous than pharmacological treatment alone in terms of glycemic control and reduction of cardiovascular risk factors (21). Moreover, its mechanism is not only limited to the simple reduction of body mass but also includes the improvement of enteric insulin levels, insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity (22,23). Kopp et al (24) found that C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 circulating levels decrease almost immediately after RYGB or sleeve gastrectomy (SG), while insulin sensitivity improves. Changes in cardiac structure and function also occur in the months and years after surgery, including mainly a reduction in left ventricular mass. However, this may be unrelated to a decrease in blood pressure (25–30). Rider et al (26) performed MRI examinations on 30 obese individuals without cardiac risk factors at baseline and one year after weight loss (bariatric surgery or dieting). Among them, 13 obese patients with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) exceeding 40% showed regression of subclinical abnormalities of myocardial deformability within 6–24 months after bariatric surgery (31). At present, the mechanisms by which bariatric surgery regulates metabolism to improve metabolic diseases is a topic of significant research interest.

3. DCM-the leading cause of heart failure among diabetic patients

In 1972, Rubler et al (32) identified a new cardiomyopathy termed DCM in diabetic patients with a history of heart failure in the absence of coronary artery disease, hypertension or heart valve disease. Current diagnostic criteria for DCM include left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and/or reduced LVEF, pathologic left ventricular hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis (33). DCM is considered one of the major complications of diabetes mellitus and is associated with numerous pathophysiological alterations, such as impaired signaling of cardiac insulin metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, increased oxidative stress, impaired calcium handling in the mitochondria and cardiomyocytes, inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, microvascular dysfunction and cardiac metabolic abnormalities (2,5). All of these collectively promote interstitial fibrosis of the cardiac tissue, cardiac diastolic dysfunction and subsequent systolic dysfunction, ultimately leading to clinical heart failure syndromes (34). There are no specific and targeted treatments for DCM, but some non-specific treatments include lifestyle improvement, glycemic control, lipid lowering, treatment of heart failure and improvement of cardiovascular disease risk factors (35,36).

4. Mechanisms of bariatric surgery to improve DCM

Altered myocardial glucose uptake

Insulin resistance is one of the major pathogenic factors in DCM, and diabetes results in impaired insulin-mediated myocardial glucose uptake (MGU) and glucose utilization, and promotes a shift in substrate toward non-esterified fatty acid oxidation, which can lead to cardiac damage (2,37–39). PI3K/AKT is the central hub of signal transduction in the myocardial insulin signaling pathway (40,41), which receives upstream signals from the insulin substrate receptor family and plays a central role in promoting glucose transporter 4 (GLUT-4) translocation (42). There is still a gap between upstream insulin signaling and downstream GLUT-4 translocation (43,44). However, two novel AKT substrates, glucose metabolism regulator protein 160 and TBC1 domain family member 1 (TBC1D1), are prime candidates for potentially bridging this gap (45). These substrates essentially act as brakes on the cytosolic action of GLUT-4 vesicles and are phosphorylated by AKT in response to insulin, leading to the conversion of some downstream Rab proteins to active GTP-bound forms, thereby triggering GLUT-4 translocation to the cell membrane (45,46). However, studies on the roles of glucose metabolism regulatory proteins 160 and TBC1D1 in DCM are more limited. In a study addressing GLUT-4 translocation, Huang et al (37) found that after duodenal-jejunal bypass (DJB), MGU recovered and was involved in the remission of DCM after DJB by promoting GLUT-4 translocation. Furthermore, by assessing the uptake of myocardial energy substrates after bariatric surgery, DJB was found to restore MGU by promoting myocardial GLUT-4 translocation in diabetic rats, and phosphorylation and activation of glucose metabolism-regulating protein 160 was restored after DJB (37). This suggests that DJB alters the activity of the PI3K/AKT pathway by modulating the expression of glucose metabolism-regulating protein 160, thereby playing a key role in the recovery of MGUs (37). The study by Huang et al demonstrated that the improvement of MGU defects in diabetic rats by DJB was associated with the promotion of myocardial insulin signaling and GLUT-4 translocation. In addition, Xu et al (47) similarly found an improvement in MGU after SG surgery in Wistar rats in which DCM had been induced. This alteration was associated with a significant down-regulation of three MAPKs (phosphorylated p38, phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2) in the myocardial tissues of Wistar rats (Fig. 2). Although restoration of MGU and improvement of cardiac metabolic homeostasis were shown to be effective in reversing DCM (48), a gap still exists between increased myocardial GLUT-4 at the cell membrane and eventual improvement in cardiac function, and more studies are required to explore the association between the two.

Reduced myocardial fatty acid utilization

In the healthy heart, 50–70% of ATP is produced from fatty acids, however this percentage is higher in patients with obesity or diabetes, reaching 80–90% (49). Although the availability of fatty acids is essential for maintaining cardiac function, this greater reliance on fatty acids may also lead to myocardial lipotoxicity that can eventually result in myocardial dysfunction (49–51). Studies on animal models have shown that obesity increases myocardial fatty acid metabolism and oxygen consumption, leading to increased oxidative stress, cardiac dysfunction and increased apoptosis (52–55). Owing to disturbed lipid metabolism, excessive fat deposition in the heart creates a lipotoxic environment and induces insulin resistance, which not only impairs pancreatic β-cell function, but also increases myocardial uptake and utilization of fatty acids (56,57). Lin et al (58) measured a decrease in myocardial total fatty acid utilization in individuals with a body mass index of >30 kg/m2 who underwent RYGB and decreased post-surgical left ventricular mass and relatively decreased myocardial total fatty acid oxidation. In addition, reduction in the left ventricular mass was an independent predictor of improvement in myocardial diastolic function, with a significant reduction in left ventricular end-diastolic volume and significant improvement in cardiac function in patients with reduced body mass. Carreau et al (59) found that bariatric surgery reduced cardiac fatty acid utilization and enhanced left ventricular function. Existing studies have reported both increases and decreases in fatty acid utilization after bariatric surgery (60,61), with a trend toward decreased fatty acid utilization in the short-term postoperative period (62). In addition, the effect of bariatric surgery on cardiac fatty acid partitioning in patients with type 2 diabetes has also been demonstrated (59), which provides strong evidence for improvement in postoperative DCM. However, more studies are needed to determine the effects of altered fatty acid utilization on cardiac structure and function after bariatric surgery and to determine whether these changes persist over time.

Reducing ER stress

The ER controls the proper folding of polypeptides and proteins through various chaperones and enzymes within the ER organelles (63). The ER folding process is disturbed when the overburdened protein folding exceeds the ER processing capacity, resulting in the accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins in the lumen of the ER, a state known as ER stress (63). ER stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of DCM; furthermore, in diabetic patients, hyperglycemia and insulin resistance lead to an increase in intracellular ER stress (64). Lakshmanan et al (65) found that ER stress can be induced by a variety of pathological conditions such as ischemia, oxidative stress, hypoxia, hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. Hyperglycemia-induced ER stress has been shown to play a major role in the pathology of cardiac dysfunction (66). ER stress-induced C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) plays an important role in the apoptosis-promoting executive pathway, which is the most described and characterized pathway in ER stress-induced cell death, as well as the downstream signaling pathway of protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) (67). The PERK downstream signaling pathway, which produces phosphorylated PERK when phosphorylated, triggers CHOP-induced apoptosis (68). In addition, caspase-12, another apoptotic signaling pathway in the cystatinase cascade reaction, is also closely associated to CHOP (69,70). Zhang et al (71) found that, compared with the sham surgery group, the expression of GRP78, PERK, phosphorylated PERK, CHOP and caspase-12 was positively expressed in the bariatric surgery group, indicating that bariatric surgery could alleviate ER stress by significantly inhibiting CHOP and caspase-12 apoptotic signaling pathways (Fig. 3). ER protein homeostasis is controlled by the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is a signaling pathway that regulates the protein-folding ability of cells to maintain cellular secretory function (72,73). When the adaptive UPR fails to maintain ER homeostasis, maladaptive or terminal UPR is engaged, leading to disruption of the ER integrity and apoptosis (74). Glucose-regulated protein 78 kD (GRP78) is a protective molecular chaperone that binds to the UPR during initial ER stress, and GRP78 is a negative regulator of the UPR in a variety of models (75,76). Zhang et al (71) found that compared with the sham surgery group, the expression of GRP78 in the bariatric surgery group was significantly decreased, confirming that bariatric surgery could reduce ER stress in cardiomyocytes.

Altered myocardial autophagic flux and inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Autophagy is a tightly regulated lysosomal degradation mechanism that plays an important role in maintaining intracellular homeostasis as well as coping with intracellular stress (77). During the development of diabetes mellitus, intracellular stress (such as ER stress) can activate autophagy, and the overactivation of autophagy in DCM cardiomyocytes can lead to self-digestion and increased reactive oxygen species generation (78). Huang et al (79) used chloroquine to determine myocardial autophagic flux through the expression of autophagy-related proteins. The results showed that autophagosome formation was weakened after SG and DJB, and that cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in the rats of the SG and DJB groups was also significantly ameliorated, and the degree of interstitial and perivascular fibrosis was lower than that of the sham-operated group. However, obesity in turn inhibits autophagy activation (80), and the effect of reduced fat load on autophagy after bariatric surgery should not be ignored. It has been reported that RYGB significantly activates hepatic autophagy and may be associated with altered glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) levels after surgery (81). Similarly, in cardiomyocytes, enhanced autophagy contributes to the amelioration of diabetes-induced cardiac injury (82,83) (Fig. 4). In summary, autophagy plays a dual role in DCM, and both inhibition and over-activation of myocardial autophagy can have pathological effects on DCM.

Evidence from several studies supports that the NLRP3 inflammasome is closely associated with the development of DCM (84–88). Bariatric surgery has been found to inhibit NLRP3 activation in pancreatic islets, hepatocytes and adipose tissue, and consequently exert anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects (89–92). Recently, Li et al (93) observed NLRP3 inflammatory vesicle-mediated inactivation of cardiomyocyte pyroptosis in SG mice. Reactive oxygen species play an important role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species is considered to be a mechanism involved in the activation of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles (84). Thus, the use of reactive oxygen species scavengers significantly reduced the expression of NLRP3. Reactive oxygen species are important regulators of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles in cardiomyocytes (93). It has been shown that chloride efflux acts downstream of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and activates the NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles in macrophages (93). In addition, inhibition of volume-sensitive chloride currents reduces cell death and reverses the contractile dysfunction in cardiomyopathy (94). Myocardial NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis restored by high glucose stimulation was observed after administration of chloride channel blockers to SG rats, suggesting that chloride efflux may act as a messenger to regulate the NLRP3 assembly and activation, either directly or indirectly (93). It is therefore clear that cardiac remodeling in DCM rats can be significantly reversed by reducing reactive oxygen/chlorine ion efflux-mediated NLRP3 inflammatory vesicle activation after SG. However, Yang et al (95) found that metformin could inhibit the expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome by activating autophagy in DCM cardiomyocytes, which seemed to be in contrast to the results of Huang et al (79) in terms of exerting cardioprotective function. It is evident that bariatric surgery still has a great potential to be investigated in terms of the regulation of myocardial autophagy.

Restoration of mitochondrial homeostasis

Mitochondrial homeostasis is important for maintaining cellular metabolism and function (96). Calcium ions play an important role in mitochondrial synthesis (97). In diabetic cardiomyocytes, the decline in cardiomyocyte function is partly mediated by abnormal mitochondrial calcium handling and decreased free matrix calcium levels (98). The diminished mitochondrial capacity for Ca2+ uptake leads to reduced ATP production (99–101) and favors reactive oxygen species generation (102). Therefore, improper mitochondrial Ca2+ handling is considered a key factor in DCM cell dysfunction (103). Huang et al (79) performed SG, DJB and sham operations on male Sprague-Dawley rats that had been induced with DCM, and subsequently assessed the ventricular diastolic function and Ca2+ homeostasis by echocardiography and calcium fluorescent probe, respectively. The results showed that both systolic and diastolic functions of the heart were improved in the SG and DJB groups of rats after surgery, as well as myoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release and Ca2+ decay. In addition, mitochondrial dysfunction was also improved by inactivation of nuclear receptor family group 4A member 1 (NR4A1) (104). NR4A1 causes disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis by promoting mitochondrial rupture and decreasing the mitochondrial membrane potential (105,106). The inactivation of NR4A1 is closely associated with the AMPK pathway (107). It has been found that SG activates the AMPK signaling pathway, inhibits NR4A1 and corrects mitochondrial dysfunction in vivo, thus contributing to the improvement of DCM in terms of morphology and cardiac function (108). Under the pathological conditions of DCM, activation of silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) and phosphorylation of AMPK can promote the clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria and peroxisomal enzymes to reverse cardiomyopathy development (109).

Regulation of the gut-heart axis

There is a bidirectional communication network between the gut and the heart, known as the ‘gut-heart axis’ (110). GLP-1 is secreted after meals, lowering glucose levels by enhancing insulin secretion and inhibiting glucagon release (111). Bariatric surgery not only increases postprandial GLP-1 release but also alters the gastrointestinal microbiota and bile acid profile cycle with beneficial effects (112,113). Bariatric surgery may alter the gut-heart axis through one or more mechanisms to obtain benefits in terms of improved cardiac function (114). GLP-1 analogs may exert cardiovascular protection by reducing inflammation (115), and increased levels of GLP-1 after bariatric surgery may reverse endothelial dysfunction and restore the endothelial-protective properties of high-density lipoproteins (116). Bile acids are considered to be important regulators of systemic metabolism, producing effects on obesity prevention and improving insulin resistance and hyperglycemia (117,118). Thus, alterations in bile acid levels and composition after gastric bypass may help to improve glucose and lipid metabolism in patients, which in turn modulates the gut-heart axis, protects the myocardium and improves myocardial fibrosis in terms of decreasing apoptosis, increasing glucose uptake, and reversing DCM (119). Alterations in gut flora after bariatric surgery have also been repeatedly reported in recent years, indicating that changes in intestinal flora after bariatric surgery may be related to improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, and may also regulate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease from multiple aspects such as the production of short-chain fatty acids and the regulation of one-carbon metabolism (120–125). Chaudhari et al (126) found that changes in the composition of the intestinal microbial community in mice after bariatric surgery may up-regulate the expression of bile acid-7-sulphate, thereby regulating the gut-heart axis. As the intestinal flora and its metabolites play an important regulatory role in cardiovascular disease, imbalance of the intestinal flora has been suggested to be an important pathological mechanism in the development of cardiovascular diseases (127,128). In summary, changes in GLP-1 release, bile acid levels and gut flora composition after bariatric surgery may facilitate improvements in DCM by exerting an effect on the gut-heart axis.

5. Potential novel therapeutic targets

Researchers have explored the molecular mechanisms underlying the improvements in DCM after bariatric surgery, but some potential therapeutic targets need further investigation. CD36 is a fatty acid transporter that is related to cardiac fatty acid uptake (129). Wang et al (130) hypothesized that the loss of the Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) promoted the localization of CD36 on the plasma membrane through aspartate-histidine-histidine-cysteine4 (DHHC4)-mediated CD36 palmitoylation, resulting in enhanced cardiac fatty acid uptake and lipid accumulation, indicating that the TGR5-DHHC4 pathway regulates cardiac fatty acid uptake and may be a potential target for the treatment of DCM. Ion channels play an important role in the pathogenesis of DCM, including changes in cation channels such as calcium, potassium and sodium, as well as anion channels (131). Studying the functional changes of calcium channels, sodium channels and potassium channels may provide new strategies for the treatment of DCM. In addition, based on the aforementioned effects of NR4A1 on mitochondria, studies have found that AMPK can further downregulate NR4A1 by activating SIRT1, thereby correcting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhancing myocardial energy production, and improving myocardial remodeling (132,133). Therefore, bariatric surgery restores mitochondrial homeostasis and alleviates DCM morphologically and functionally by maintaining myocardial Ca2+ homeostasis and downregulating NR4A1 expression (79,108). The decline in cardiomyocyte function is partly mediated by abnormal mitochondrial calcium handling and decreased free matrix calcium levels, which may be a good target for new therapeutic interventions (98,99,103).

6. Conclusion

DCM is one of the most serious complications of diabetes mellitus, and while its etiology involves the synergistic effect of multiple molecular mechanisms, the specific underlying pathogenesis is still unclear (101). Hence, the lack of specificity in DCM treatment is one of the reasons why a clinical cure is challenging. Currently, the mainstream treatment includes intensive glucose control, traditional Chinese medicine intervention and corresponding symptomatic treatment, but none of these approaches can further improve patient prognosis (134). Therefore, it is particularly important to explore new treatment modalities. Relevant basic experiments have proved that bariatric surgery can effectively alleviate or even reverse DCM-induced cardiomyopathy, but the specific mechanism of the therapeutic effect of bariatric surgery has not been fully elucidated (37,47,71). The present review summarized the latest advances in the treatment of DCM with bariatric surgery. It is critical to study the underlying mechanisms of cardiac microstructural changes after bariatric surgery to develop more effective therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, research should focus on the association between signaling pathways, and studies with clear experimental results should be shifted to clinical studies to guide the use of future medication, research and the development of new drugs. By elucidating the molecular and physiological responses to bariatric surgery, the present review aimed to enhance the understanding of DCM, identify new targets for intervention and advance the development of more efficacious and personalized treatment options. This research direction is pivotal for the advancement of clinical strategies that can effectively address the multifaceted challenges posed by DCM, ultimately improving patient care and outcomes.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Authors' contributions

KS and YR conceived the subject of the review, performed the investigation, and wrote and edited the original draft. DL, DX and AK wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript and contributed to the figures. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Data authentication is not applicable.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Patient consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Figure 1. Possible mechanisms by which bariatric surgery improves DCM. Bariatric surgery may improve DCM by maintaining calcium homeostasis, regulating the gut-heart axis, reducing myocardial fatty acid formation, reducing myocardial mitochondrial autophagy, improving myocardial glucose uptake, inhibiting inflammasome activation and reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress. DCM, diabetic cardiomyopathy; RYGB, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass; SG, sleeve gastrectomy.

Figure 2. Possible mechanisms of DJB and SG in improving DCM. DJB promotes GLUT-4 translocation and restores MGU by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and downstream substrates. SG improves diabetes-induced myocardial hypertrophy by inhibiting the MAPK signaling pathway. DJB, duodenal-jejunal bypass; SG, sleeve gastrectomy; DCM, diabetic cardiomyopathy; GLUT-4, glucose transporter 4; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Akt, protein kinase B; MGU, myocardial glucose uptake; P, phosphorylated; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; TBC1D1, TBC1 domain family member 1.

Figure 3. Possible mechanisms by which bariatric surgery improves ER stress in cardiomyocytes. SG and DJB improve ER stress in cardiomyocytes by decreasing signaling molecules related to apoptosis and ER stress in cardiomyocytes such as GRP78, PERK, P-PERK, CHOP and caspase 12. DJB, duodenal-jejunal bypass; SG, sleeve gastrectomy; PERK, protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; CHOP, C/EBP homologous protein, ER endoplasmic reticulum; P, phosphorylated.

Figure 4. Schematic representation of the formation of autophagy inhibition/activation. Obesity or diabetic cardiomyopathy leads to over inhibition/activation of myocardial autophagy, which can be ameliorated by bariatric surgery. SG, sleeve gastrectomy; DJB, duodenal-jejunal bypass; RYGB, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass; ROS, reactive oxygen species; DCM, diabetic cardiomyopathy; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1.
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