
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)13364-6
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37333
e37333
Research Article
Wear characteristics of zirconia-toughened epoxy/Kevlar-honeycomb composite lining for drilling casing
Fouad Y. a
Merah N. nesar@kfupm.edu.sa
ab⁎
Azeem M.A. a
Gasem Z. ab
Alqutub A. ab
Aleid A.A. a
Osman O. a
Shaarawi A. c
Aljohar A. c
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
b Interdisciplinary Research Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
c Drilling Technology Team, EXPEC Advanced Research Center, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia. nesar@kfupm.edu.sa
04 9 2024
15 9 2024
04 9 2024
10 17 e3733322 6 2024
18 8 2024
1 9 2024
© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2024

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Casing wear is a persistent issue in oil and gas drilling facilities that call for innovative more wear-resistant materials to mitigate casing failures. The present work examines the tribological performance of a novel composite lining comprised of Kevlar honeycomb in a matrix of epoxy reinforced with Zirconia particles against hardband drillpipe tooljoint (DP-TJ). Three side loads (1000, 1200, and 1400 N) and three DP-TJ speeds (0.43, 0.76, and 1.02 m/s) were considered under dry sliding conditions. The results showed that the specific wear rate (K) increased with speed at all side loads. However, K value was found to reach a maximum, reaching 20.3*10−8 MPa−1 at 1200 N before dropping to about 8.5*10−8 MPa−1 when the load is increased to 1400 N. This decline in specific wear rate at the load of 1400 N was attributed to the growth of a double transfer layer through the alignment of zirconia particles in the lining. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of worn surfaces revealed that higher K values are associated with more adhesion, delamination, and fiber breakage. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the worn surface and the debris collected after the wear test reveals minimal wear of DP-TJ. The epoxy/Kevlar-honeycomb composite lining demonstrated appreciable wear resistance even under dry sliding conditions.

Keywords

Casing wear
Kevlar epoxy zirconia composite
Specific wear rate
dry sliding friction
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

The development of drilling technology has resulted in more wear between the drill pipe tooljoint and casing, which could have major repercussions like casing failure or even well scrapping. Therefore, to prevent excessive drilling-related financial losses, casing wear should be handled seriously [1]. Due to its direct impact on drilling operations' economy, safety, and efficiency, numerous researchers have actively investigated strategies to address casing wear issues. Their findings indicate that a variety of parameters, including drilling circumstances, drilling fluid type, weighting agent, and casing material, can impact casing wear [2,3] Different linear and non-linear models were also proposed to account for different parameters [4,5].

A novel crescent-shaped wear equation was developed by Lin et al. [6] to account for non-uniform wear and manufacturing flaws when calculating the worn casing collapse strength. This equation has been used by many researchers who came after him, whether for modeling [7], or experimental work [[8], [9], [10]]. Osman et al. [8] validated the use of this equation to estimate wear volume in the casings with 3D optical profilometer measurements. It is to be noted that most of earlier studies on casing wear focused on different types of steels such as P110 [11], L80 [12], and N80 [13]. Corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs), such as P110 and SM2535 are also employed in harsh environments such as elevated CO2 and H2S partial pressures, high chlorine, mercury, sulfur content, etc. However, the casings are still prone to various types of environmentally assisted cracking [14] and severe wear under dry sliding conditions.

Coatings could be utilized to protect the steel of the tool joint and casing as they improve the wear resistance of the material, reduce the COF, and increase the life of the equipment [15,16]. Polymeric-based composite casing linings could be a potential alternative to improve drilling operations and minimize casing failures. Yumashev and Mikhaylov [17] have observed that wear rates can decrease by up to three or four orders of magnitude in polymer composites due to the relocation of the nanoparticles to the contact region acting as spacers following their debonding from the matrix. Li et al. [18] explored the potential of nanocomposite high-entropy alloy films as a promising material for wear protection in extreme environments. This is due to high hardness, high toughness, and excellent wear resistance of the film. In their other work Li et al. [19] showed that the use of a carbon content of 44 wt% resulted in the best tribological performance with low coefficient of friction (0.16) and a specific wear rate of 0.24 × 10−8 MPa−1. Alajmi et al. [20] and Zhang et al. [21] showed that the formation of a soft material film on the counterface decreases the coefficient of friction and the wear rate. Padgurskas et al. [22] tested the tribological properties of the resin composites reinforced with the fillers of glass powder and micro-bubbles. The wear mechanisms they observed included the transfer of counterface material onto the composite surface and micro-plowing effects. They also highlighted the role of filler content in mitigating wear rates. Abenojar et al. [23] observed that the predominant wear mechanism of epoxy-based composite coating containing ceramic nano and micro particles is a combination of adhesive and abrasive wear with clear signs of adhesive wear. Gopal et al. [24] found signs of fiber pullout as a form of wear mechanism in composite materials. Li et al. [25] observed delamination and crack formation as wear mechanisms, while Wang et al. [26] explained that the delamination could be caused by the formation of two solid lubricant layers while Awwad et al. [27] stated that the delamination may be the result of exposure to prolonged frictional heat, resulting in thermo-mechanical stresses.

Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) has outstanding wear resistance, low friction coefficient, and mechanical and thermal stability which are desirable properties in drilling operations [28]. In their research, Kurahatti et al. [29] found that the inclusion of nano-zirconia particles significantly improved the tribological characteristics of the epoxy composites, resulting in mild abrasion. Deformation-induced phase transformation of ZrO2 particles from tetragonal to monoclinic is accompanied by a volume expansion that results in the formation of a compressive state of stresses that function as a toughening enhancement for zirconia-reinforced epoxy resins. Utilizing ZrO2 particles as a reinforcing agent for polymeric-based composites improved wear resistance by preventing cracks from developing and spreading as demonstrated by Zadorozhnaya et al. [30]. Chen et al. [31] found that with an increase in load, the wear mechanism of zirconia-reinforced coating is predominantly due to plastic deformation and microcracking. This means fewer debris are produced during drilling which is a beneficial property to have in the drilling operation.

Due to its attractive strength, high strength-to-weight ratio, and impact resistance properties, Kevlar is shown to be a good candidate to replace metallic materials in a number research works. Wang et al. [26] observed the formation of a wear-resistant double-layer transfer membrane structure in PTFE/Kevlar composites under heavy loads improved durability and reduced friction. Fouad et al. [32] evaluated the tribological behavior of Kevlar-epoxy-zirconia composite casing lining using a field-size DP-TJ coated with the same composite as the counterface and real drilling water-based mud and found that at the intermediate speed of 0.76 m/s, the debonded spherical zirconia beads acted as rollers, leading to a decrease in the coefficient of friction and specific wear rate. Given the aforementioned benefits of zirconia and Kevlar, a composite consisting of the two is a strong contender to replace metallic materials in drilling applications.

Using a customized and automated lathe machine setup controlled by a data acquisition system, the tribological properties of Kevlar-epoxy-zirconia composite casing lining sliding against dry hardened steel DP-TJ were investigated in this work. The purpose of the present research work is to evaluate the performance of this novel proprietary composite in light of its possible application as a lining for casings in oil and gas well drilling. The effects of different radial loads and DP-TJ rotational speeds on the wear behavior of this novel composite are examined and evaluated. Wear volumes, rates and factors, casing temperature and corresponding wear mechanisms were determined for different combinations of side loads and DP-TJ speeds.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials and equipment

The drill pipe tool joint is made of hardened steel with a hardness value of HRC = 58 [10] while the casing samples are made out of P110 steel pipes with a composite lining comprising a Kevlar honeycomb core filled with epoxy that is reinforced with surface-treated zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) beads having an average diameter of 80 μm and a volume fraction of 2.5 %. The honeycomb is adhered to the pipe internal surfaces using an epoxy-based adhesive enhanced with a proprietary nano additive for enhanced adhesion. The filler resin employed was Novolac epoxy cured with Cycloaliphatic amine. All lined casing samples and the tool joint were provided by the manufacturer Maxwell Oil Tools in collaboration with a local drilling operator.

The casing pipe was cut into 60-degree arc-shaped. Fig. 1(a) show the side view of the casing sample and Fig. 1 (b) is a close up view of Epoxy-Kevlar composite lining on the steel backing. Fig. 1(c and d) show the top view of the casing sample with width of 16 mm and a close-up image of the hexagonal shape of the composite lining on the casing samples. Table 1 lists the dimensions of the casing pipe, the section width, the thickness of the composite lining, and the drill pipe tool joint.Fig. 1 Photographs of the as-received samples showing (a) side view of casing specimen (b) a close-up view of the side view, (c) the top view of the sample lining, and (d) a close-up view of the composite lining surface.

Fig. 1

Table 1 The dimensions of the as-received casing pipe, composite lining and DP-TJ.

Table 1	Outer diameter (mm)	Inner diameter (mm)	Sample width (mm)	Composite layer (mm)	
Casing	244.5	211.5	16	3–5	
DP-TJ	126.3	78	146	–	

The experimental rig consisted of a modified lathe machine retrofitted with a casing wear test setup based on the industry standard's experimental setup (API Standard 7 CW 2015 [33]). As can be seen in Fig. 2, a specially designed test specimen holder was used in place of the traditional cutting tool. The tool joint was firmly fixed into the machine's spinning spindle. A Nema 34 closed-loop stepper motor driven by an HBS860H driver was used to control the applied load between the casing sample and the DP-TJ. The casing holder was firmly fixed on a 9257B type dynamometer (Kistler Instrument Corp, Hudson, NY, USA) which measures the three-dimensional loads applied to the casing. During wear tests, a waterproof DS18B20 digital thermal probe sensor was employed on the casing steel close to the lining to record the average casing bulk temperature.Fig. 2 Casing wear test setup (a) side view, (b) top view, and (c) a schematic showing the test setup.

Fig. 2

The radial displacement of the casing sample was measured during the wear test using a digital micrometer that can measure up to 12.7 mm with a resolution of 0.001 mm, and ±0.004 mm accuracy. The digital indicator values are recorded every 2 min and used to estimate the maximum wear depth. The measurements of the digital indicator were validated with a 3D optical profilometer (Profilm3D, Filmetrics).

2.2 Experimental procedure

In order to investigate the wear behavior and wear mechanisms of the dry friction between the Kevlar-epoxy-zirconia composite lining and the hardened steel DP-TJ. Three rotational speeds of 65 RPM, 115 RPM, and 154 RPM (0.43 m/s, 0.76 m/s, and 1.02 m/s) and three contact loads (1000 N, 1200 N, and 1400 N) were selected as illustrated in Table 2. The DP-TJ speeds are close to true drillstring rotational speeds of 100–150 rpm, and the selected side loads result in unit loads that are about 35–50 % higher than the expected field condition pressures of 0.3–0.5 MPa. Each test condition was repeated at least twice and the average of results is used in the analysis. The duration of each test was 5 h except when the temperature of the dynamometer approached its limit, leading to test interruption. The wear volume, coefficient of friction, specific wear rates (casing wear factors), and other important performance variables were computed using the test parameters such as the wear depth, applied load, DP-TJ speed and wear distance.Table 2 The testing matrix.

Table 2Test condition	Speed (m/s)	Force (N)	
1	0.43	1000	
2	0.43	1200	
3	0.43	1400	
4	0.76	1000	
5	0.76	1200	
6	0.76	1400	
7	1.02	1000	
8	1.02	1200	
9	1.02	1400	

2.3 Characterization

The hardness of the lining was measured using a Shore D hardness tester (Digi Test, BAREISS). The wear depth and wear area profile were obtained with a 3D optical profilometer (Profilm3D, Filmetrics). Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) from FEI Quanta 250, equipped with Oxford energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was utilized to examine the morphology of the worn surfaces and investigate the surfaces’ elemental distribution and chemical composition both before and after the wear tests. Additionally, samples were inspected before and after testing at various locations using a stereo microscope (KRUSS, USA). JEOL JDX-3530 x-ray diffractometer to identify the phases of the material and the collected debris from the wear test.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Hardness

Table 3 summarizes the average hardness data for casing samples before and after the wear tests for three DP-TJ speeds and two side loads. The composite lining showed a slight degradation in the average hardness measured after the wear tests (2–7%) probably caused by the prolonged exposure to the frictional heat at the contact surface during tests [27].Table 3 Summary of the hardness values.

Table 3Sample	Shore-D Hardness	
As-received lining	87.8 ± 2.3	
Tested at:1400 N–1.02 m/s	85.5 ± 3.9	
Tested at:1400 N–0.76 m/s	83.7 ± 4.1	
Tested at:1400 N–0.43 m/s	85.1 ± 4.7	
Tested at:1200 N–1.02 m/s	86.1 ± 2.4	
Tested at:1200 N–0.76 m/s	81.9 ± 5.1	

3.2 Wear depth and wear volume

The wear volume of the tested casing samples was estimated based on the maximum wear depth values obtained at the end of each test using a digital displacement indicator. These measurements were validated using the optical profilometer as can be seen in Fig. 3(a and b). The 2D profiles in Fig. 3(b) represent the initial casing curvature (blue) and the worn surface (red) and the difference between the two profiles represents the wear depth. The recorded maximum wear depth obtained using the digital indicator for the sample tested at 1400 N and 0.43 m/s was found to be 0.202 mm while the optical profilometer exhibited a wear depth of about 0.260 mm, corresponding to a maximum error of −22 %. It should be mentioned that the difference between the in-situ depth and the profilometer measurements could be influenced by observed variation in the lining thickness of the received samples.Fig. 3 a) 3D wear track profile of casing tested at 1400 N load and a speed of 0.43 m/s, and b) 2D wear track profile of the same sample.

Fig. 3

Furthermore, the 3D wear track profile shown in Fig. 3(a) represents a typical shape of wear groove of the casing after the wear test which resembles the derived crescent shape groove shown in Fig. 4. Hence, the wear volume per unit width (WV) (mm3/mm) can be estimated using Eq. (1) [34] given below,(1) WV=(βr2+2Q(Q−R)(Q−S)(Q−r)−αR2)

whereQ=R+r+S2,andS=R−(r−w),

cosα=(R2+S2−r22RS),andβ=arctg(RsinsinαRcoscosα−S)

where (w) is the maximum depth of wear in mm, (R) is the inner radius of the casing in mm, and (r) is the outer radius of the drill pipe in mm.Fig. 4 Crescent-shape wear groove [34].

Fig. 4

Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7 display the variations in the measured wear depth with the duration of the wear test for up to 5 h for different specimens tested at different speeds and loads. It can be observed that increasing the load from 1000 N to 1200 N increased the wear depth for all rotational speeds. However, the wear depth decreased as the load was increased from 1200 N to 1400 N for the 0.43 m/s and 1.02 m/s. This behavior could be related to the formation of a double transfer layer enriched with ZrO2 particles in the uppermost surface of the lining which eventually led to increased wear resistance. This phenomenon will be explained in a later section.Fig. 5 Variation of the a) maximum wear depth and b) temperature; with time of the wear test for specimens tested at constant speed of 0.43 m/s and subjected to different radial loads.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6 Variation of the a) maximum wear depth and b) temperature; with time of the wear test for specimens tested at a constant speed of 0.76 m/s and subjected to different radial loads.

Fig. 6

Fig. 7 Variation of the a) maximum wear depth and b) temperature; with time of the wear test for specimens tested at a constant speed of 1.02 m/s and subjected to different radial loads.

Fig. 7

Temperature measurements of the substrate steel reveals a complex wear behavior of the lining composite that depended not only on the load and rotational speed but also on the matrix temperature. Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7 indicate a continuous rise in the matrix temperature with increased wear test time. The temperature initially increased linearly with the time and decreased gradually and reached a steady-state plateau value at longer testing time. Fig. 7(b) shows that the rise in the temperature for tests conducted at high speed of 1.02 m/s for 1200 and 1400 N loads is rapid and exceeded 100 °C, raising some concern about the accuracy of the use of Eq. (1) to estimate the wear volume at high-load and high-rotational speeds. Further, the increased wear depth for 1200 N and 1400 N at the highest speed of 1.02 m/s could be related to the composite temperature (Fig. 7(a and b)). The wear depth increased approximately equally for both loads of 1200 and 1400 N at temperatures below 70–75 °C, possibly due to softening of the epoxy resin. However, the wear depth at an applied load of 1400 N dropped sharply above around 80 °C possibly due to excessive softening leading to a lubricating effect between the tooljoint and the composite lining. It is expected that the lining temperature would be higher than the measured temperature due to the poor conductivity of epoxy resin. It should be noted here that the tests were prematurely interrupted at loads of 1200 and 1400 N at the speed of 1.02 m/s owing to temperature increases beyond 100 °C to avoid exceeding the temperature limits of the acquisition system.

3.3 Specific wear rate

The specific wear rate (K) in mm3/N-m, known also as the wear factor, was estimated for the composite lining, using the following equation:(2) K=V/(P*L)

The sliding distance L in (m) is calculated as:(3) L=π*N*t*D

where V: volume loss (mm3), P: radial load (N), N: rotation speed (RPM), t: testing time (min), D: tool joint diameter (m). The estimated values of the specific wear rates (K) for the lining composite tested against hardened steel DP-TJ in dry friction conditions, under different radial loads and speeds are summarized in Table 4. Each test was repeated twice for up to 5 h. Fig. 8 displays the variation of the average K values with side load and DP-TJ speed. In general, the specific wear rate is found to increase with increasing speed at all side loads with the highest increment observed as the speed increased from 0.76 m/s to 1.02 m/s. The trend is different when it comes to the variation of K with the side load. The specific wear rate reached the maximum value at the intermediate load of 1200 N for all DP-TJ speeds. When the side load is increased from 1200 N to 1400 N, the specific wear rate drops for all three speeds, this unexpected behavior will be explained in the following sections.Table 4 Specific casing wear rates (K) for the Kevlar-epoxy-zirconia composite.

Table 4Sample number	Speed (m/s)	Side Load (N)	Time (min)	Wear depth (mm)	Loss in wear volume (mm3)	Specific casing wear rate K*10–8 (MPa−1)	
1	0.43	1000	300	0.370	83.9	1.08	
1-a	0.43	1000	300	0.410	98.70	1.28	
2	0.43	1200	300	0.902	329.5	3.55	
2-a	0.43	1200	300	0.830	292.00	3.15	
3	0.43	1400	300	0.202	35.2	0.33	
3-a	0.43	1400	300	0.425	107.1	0.99	
4	0.76	1000	300	1.248	534.4	2.9	
4-a	0.76	1000	300	0.901	328.9	2.40	
5	0.76	1200	300	0.984	376.0	2.29	
5-a	0.76	1200	300	1.508	709.2	4.32	
6	0.76	1400	300	1.596	816.4	4.26	
6-a	0.76	1400	300	0.898	347.2	1.81	
7	1.02	1000	300	1.082	432.1	2.36	
7-a	1.02	1000	200	1.29	559.67	4.58	
8	1.02	1200	120	2.134	1182	13.4	
8-a	1.02	1200	158	3.478	2357	20.3	
9	1.02	1400	120	1.814	986.7	9.61	
9-a	1.02	1400	160	1.807	981.2	7.17	

Fig. 8 Average specific casing wear rates for different side loads and speeds.

Fig. 8

A number of the obtained specific wear rate values for the composite lining (Table 4) are within the 0.5 × 10−8 to 3 × 10−8MPa−1 range reported by Alajmi et al. [20] and most of the present K values are within the 1 × 10−8 to 18 × 10−8MPa−1 obtained by Kurahatti et al. [29] for epoxy-based composites.

Furthermore, Fig. 9 shows a comparison of the specific wear rate values of the composite lining to the previous studies done by Osman et al. [9,12] for conventional casing samples tested under 1000 N load and 0.76 m/s speed using the same testing setup. The graph illustrates that the composite lining has comparable performance to the L-80 and P110 grade casing material. While the L-80 and P110 casings were tested when lubricated with water-based mud (WBM) and oil-based mud (OBM), the composite lining in our work was tested without any lubrication which shows that the composite material has a promising performance in the field even under dry conditions.Fig. 9 Comparison of the specific wear rate for composite lining with L-80, and P110 casings under 1000N-0.76 m/s test condition.

Fig. 9

The variation of the coefficient of friction (COF) can be seen in Fig. 10, the values displayed are the average values obtained for the first 30 min of each test. The COF increased with increasing load for all speeds examined. At the lowest load of 1000 N, the increase in speed led to a slight decrease in the COF from 0.24 at 0.43 m/s to 0.23 at 0.76 m/s and 0.21 at 1.02 m/s. As for the case of the contact load of 1200 N, the average COF is 0.26 at 0.43 m/s and 1.02 m/s but it drops to 0.23 at 0.76 m/s. The COF for all cases is still on the lower side and the variation is very small. However, the COF increased with an increase in radial load. The increase in COF with increasing the load is probably due to the increase in the number of asperities making contact between the two surfaces. Another factor to consider when the load is increased is the exposition of ceramic particles from the lining which makes a harder surface in contact with the tool joint. On the other hand, the drop in the COF at higher speed could be related to the wear mechanism of the zirconia particles released from the lining surface, changing from sliding friction to rolling friction.Fig. 10 Average COF for different loads and speeds.

Fig. 10

3.4 Wear mechanisms

Lining surfaces were examined by stereo microscope, before and after testing. The as-received lining image is depicted in Fig. 11(a) which shows Kevlar fibers enclosing zirconia particles under a smooth epoxy matrix layer. Spherical-shaped zirconia micro-particles, in white color, can be seen distributed in the epoxy matrix. Fig. 11(b–d) shows the morphology of the lining after testing at different side loads and speeds. The micrographs show scratches in the sliding direction with distorted Kevlar fibers which indicates the existence of abrasive wear along with signs of material removal due to adhesive wear.Fig. 11 Microscopic images of a) as received lining and tested samples at b) 1000 N-0.43 m/s, c) 1200 N-0.76 m/s, and d) 1400 N-1.02 m/s.

Fig. 11

SEM analysis was also performed to examine the surface of the composite lining after testing. Fig. 12 displays two SEM images taken under different magnifications of the same sample tested under 1400 N and 0.76 m/s. The wear mechanisms consist of abrasion, adhesion, delamination, crack formation, and Kevlar fiber breakage. The predominant wear mechanism at 1400 N is a combination of adhesive and abrasive wear with clear signs of adhesive wear. This is similar to what Abenojar et al. [23] have observed for their epoxy-based composite lining containing ceramic nano and micro particles. Furthermore, the micrographs of Fig. 12 show broken fibers in various locations on the lining surface. No clear signs of fiber pullout was noticed as was observed by Gopal et al. [24]. The surface of the sample is exposed to a prolonged frictional heat resulting in thermo-mechanical stresses that cause delamination as observed by Awwad et al. [27]. Other wear mechanisms such as delamination and cracks can be seen on the micrographs. Li et al. [25] stated that “lumpy slap” debris are an indication of the matrix delamination, while Wang et al. [26] expressed that the formation of delamination could be caused by the formation of two solid lubricant layers.Fig. 12 a) Low and b) High magnification SEM images depicting wear mechanisms on the surface of casing sample tested at 1400 N and 0.76 m/s.

Fig. 12

As discussed earlier, a decrease in the specific wear rate was observed with an increase in load from 1200 N to 1400 N at all speeds. This higher wear resistance at higher side load is mainly due to the alignment of zirconia particles along the sliding direction (Fig. 13(a)) that played a role in decreasing the wear at 1400 N when compared to 1200 N, while also increasing the coefficient of friction due to the hard surface of the zirconia. The SEM image of Fig. 13(b), for 1200 N and 0.76 m/s sample, shows signs of severe wear with marks of abrasion, adhesion, broken fibers, and crack formation.Fig. 13 Wear mechanisms under (a) 1400 N and 0.76 m/s, and (b) 1200 N and 0.76 m/s.

Fig. 13

Fig. 14 is a schematic representation of the wear process. During the wear process, some of the removed zirconia particles, (yellow spheres) are ejected (Fig. 14 (b)) and some get stuck on the DP-TJ (Fig. 14(c)). Fig. 14(c) displays how the worn Zirconia, epoxy, and Kevlar debris that were stuck to the tool joint piled up above the contact region. This mixed debris pileup is depicted in the actual photograph of Fig. 15 (a). During the test, part of the piled-up debris will slip into the contact region in a sheet-like form as the one indicated by Fig. 15(b) with the white spheres being the zirconia. Due to contact temperature and pressure, some of this debris will stick to the surface of the casing resulting in the double-transfer layer. Some of the zirconia particles that slip into the contact region could end up as rollers which decrease the friction and wear between the two surfaces. The formation of the double-transfer layer and the role of zirconia particles is explained in Fig. 16 where the green spheres represent the zirconia particles that are originally located on the casing surface while the yellow ones represent the free zirconia that is carried by the tool joint and pile up above the contact surface, both of them could act as rollers when they are released into the contact surface. The grey circles represent the zirconia particles stuck to the surface of the casing with the double transfer layer. Similar behavior has been observed by Alajmi et al. [20] who observed the formation of soft material film (graphite epoxy) on the surface of a stainless steel counterface.Fig. 14 Schematics show the process of debris piling in the contact region.

Fig. 14

Fig. 15 Photograph of the piling debris during the test.

Fig. 15

Fig. 16 Schematics show the role of the zirconia particles in the contact region.

Fig. 16

EDS analysis and mapping were utilized to understand the chemical composition of the wear track and gain insights into the constituents of the debris collected from the test. The EDS elemental mapping images displayed in Fig. 17 show how the different elements (C, O, Zr, Fe, Al, and Si) are distributed over the worn surface. In this map, it's clear that the iron element is spread all over the sample which indicates transfer of material from the tool joint during the contact with the casing lining.Fig. 17 SEM image and EDS elemental mapping for the sample tested at 1400 N and 0.76 m/s.

Fig. 17

Fig. 18(a, b) show the EDS analysis taken for the sample tested under 1200 N and 1.02 m/s while Fig. 18(c, d) show the EDS analysis for the sample tested under 1400 N and 1.02 m/s. By comparing the elemental composition in both samples, the number of elements from the ceramic particles in the composite involving Zirconia and Aluminum silicate at the surface varied with the load. The sample tested under 1400 N has more Wt.% of Zr, Al, and Si elements than the one tested at 1200 N. This indicates that fewer ceramic particles were removed from the lining surface after the wear test in the case of the sample tested at the higher load of 1400 N. Furthermore, the sample tested at 1200 N load indicated more transfer of elements (Fe) from the tool joint which also justifies the severity of wear in this sample.Fig. 18 (a) SEM image of specimen tested at 1200 N and 1.02 m/s, with its EDS analysis (b) and (c) SEM image of specimen tested at 1400 N and 1.02 m/s sample with its EDS analysis (d).

Fig. 18

The EDS analysis of the wear debris from the sample tested under 1200 N load and 1.02 m/s speed is shown in Fig. 19. The constituents of this debris include elements such as Carbon, Oxygen, Iron, Zirconium, Silicon, Aluminum, Sodium, and Potassium from the epoxy, ceramic particles and additives present in the lining. The EDS spectrum also revealed the presence of Iron (Fe) and Sulfur (S) elements which insinuates wear in the tool joint. The presence of these elements and particles can also be viewed in the backscattered electron image and EDS elemental mapping for the same location in Fig. 20. It shows the presence of spherical zirconia particles and the distribution of elements in the debris and how fine Fe particles are distributed all over surface.Fig. 19 SEM image and EDS analysis of the debris particles.

Fig. 19

Fig. 20 Backscattered image and EDS elemental mapping of the wear debris.

Fig. 20

To further substantiate the wear mechanism between the composite lining and the tool joint, XRD analysis of the wear debris was performed. The diffraction patterns shown in Fig. 21 reveal the absence of iron ‘Fe’ peaks in the collected debris and the presence of epoxy and zirconia peaks with higher intensities. This indicates that the predominant material removal in casing wear was from the composite lining of the casing with no or minimal material removal from the drilling pipe. The majority of peaks detected in the XRD pattern were labeled for the Zirconia phases. The comparison of the peak intensity shows an increase in the monoclinic zirconia phase after the wear tests which could be attributed to stress-induced tetragonal to monoclinic ZrO2 transformation. The reason for this can be attributed to the rolling and sliding of zirconia particles against DP-TJ eventually leading to the expulsion of ceramic particles from the epoxy matrix. The figure also shows that the phases are nearly identical for samples tested at 1400 N with different speeds, however, the change in load from 1400 N to 1200 N at 0.76 m/s shows a decrease in the monoclinic angles around 27°; this is due to having lower pressure that yields less phase transformation. In the SEM image taken at high magnification (Fig. 22), the particles on the surface of the worn sample could be categorized using the EDS analysis to be either epoxy/ceramic particles or nano-micro-sized debris from the DP-TJ surface. The point EDS analysis of the debris particles on the worn surface reveals the presence of traces of iron, which is most probably transferred from the tool joint surface.Fig. 21 XRD analysis for untested sample and samples (debris) tested under different parameters.

Fig. 21

Fig. 22 SEM image and EDS analysis of tested sample at 1200 N and 0.76 m/s.

Fig. 22

4 Conclusion

A casing wear study on epoxy/Kevlar-honeycomb composite lining was performed under dry sliding conditions at three different side loads and three DP-TJ speeds. Wear volume, specific wear rate, and wear mechanisms were determined for all combinations. The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study:1. The wear volume and the specific wear rate of the composite lining were found to increase with DP-TJ speed at all applied loads. The transition from 0.76 m/s to 1.02 m/s resulted in an abrupt increase in the average K values. The value of K is maximum at the intermediate side load of 1200 N, for all speeds.

2. The highest value of the specific wear rate was 20.3*10−8 MPa−1 for samples tested at 1200 N and 1.02 m/s while the lowest value was 0.33*10−8 MPa−1 at 1400 N and 0.43 m/s.

3. The coefficient of friction was found to vary between 0.20 and 0.33 with an increase in load from 1000 N to 1400 N at 1.02 m/s speed respectively.

4. The generated heat in the lining due to side loads above 1000 N and DP-TJ speed of 1.02 m/s resulted in a tremendous increase in specific wear rate, especially at 1200 N.

5. The specific wear rate in samples tested at 1400 N at all speeds was found to be less compared to that of 1200 N. This unusual behavior was attributed to the double transfer layer developed from the pile-up of composite debris forming a protective layer.

6. The microscopic analyses of the worn surfaces in the lining demonstrated abrasive wear as the major wear mechanism at low loads and speeds.

7. SEM analysis of worn surfaces showed that other wear mechanisms such as adhesion, Kevlar fiber distortion, and delamination were present at higher loads. The observed higher wear resistance at 1400 N is mainly due to the alignment of zirconia particles along the sliding direction.

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. No data were deposited in any publicly available repositories. Further information can be provided by the corresponding author upon request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Y. Fouad: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. N. Merah: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. M.A. Azeem: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Data curation. Z. Gasem: Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis. A. Alqutub: Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis. A.A. Aleid: Investigation, Data curation. O. Osman: Investigation, Data curation. A. Shaarawi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. A. Aljohar: Writing – review & editing, Resources.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the KFUPM Deanship of Research Oversight and Coordination (DROC) through project (#CAM02583 ), KSA. The casings and drilling pipes were provided by Maxwell Oil Tools in accordance with a local partnering operator.
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