
==== Front
Discov Ment Health
Discov Ment Health
Discover Mental Health
2731-4383
Springer International Publishing Cham

39287728
96
10.1007/s44192-024-00096-z
Research
How do emotional intelligence, resilience, and parental employment affect anxiety and depression levels among Sudanese adolescents?
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3263-7842
Ibrahim Danya daniamustafa96@gmail.com

1
Altahir Anfal M. 1
Abdalla Da’ad 1
Elkhidir Ibrahim 1
Abdelmagid Tarteel 2
SirElkhatim Dalya 1
Hamid Samah 1
Ali Babekir 1
Tamim Mohammed 1
Isam Osama 1
Abdelaziz Zahra 3
Mohammed Zainab 1
Ahmed Reem Mohamed 1
Adil Awatif 1
Abdelgafour Rania Hassan 1
1 https://ror.org/02jbayz55 grid.9763.b 0000 0001 0674 6207 Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
2 https://ror.org/01g5skz36 grid.442415.2 0000 0001 0164 5423 Faculty of Medicine, Ahfad University for Women, Khartoum, Sudan
3 grid.440840.c 0000 0000 8887 0449 Faculty of Dentistry, University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan
17 9 2024
17 9 2024
12 2024
4 1 3623 6 2024
9 9 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Background

Adolescents are often sensitive to emotions and vulnerable to psychiatric issues, including suicidal tendencies. Emotional intelligence is believed to play a significant role in resilience, which acts as a protective factor for mental well-being. The study investigated the level of emotional intelligence, resilience, depression, and anxiety in Sudanese adolescents and the relationship between these factors.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among four high schools and included a total of 392 adolescents who completed a self-administered questionnaire consisting of the 30-item trait; Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire- short form (TEQ-SF), Brief Resilience Scale-6 (BRS-6) and Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4).

Results

Emotional intelligence levels were moderate to high (M = 131.53 ± SD 22.16). While resilience levels were low to normal (M = 3.20 ± SD 0.51). Levels of anxiety were present in 89% of students while levels of depression were present in 78% of students and both were positively correlated (r = 0.540). Emotional intelligence and resilience were positively correlated (r = 0.272, p < 0.0005). Also, Resilience was positively correlated with levels of anxiety (r = 0.105) and the latter had a significant negative association with academic performance (r = − 0.102). Parents' status significantly contributed to predicting resilience levels (p-value = 0.011), with an unstandardized beta coefficient of 0.368. The mothers’ unemployment (r = − 0.100) and the father’s employment (r = 0.105) were significantly linked to lower anxiety levels.

Conclusion

The high prevalence of anxiety and depression levels among Sudanese adolescents is influenced by parental separation and employment. Improving students' mental health is crucial as it is linked to enhancing their academic performance. This underscores the importance of addressing mental well-being alongside educational outcomes.

Keywords

Emotional intelligence
Resilience
Adolescents
Anxiety
Depression
issue-copyright-statement© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
==== Body
pmcBackground

The domains of mental and social well-being of adolescents continue to languish in neglect, particularly within Sudan and other developing nations [1, 2]. On the other hand, emotional intelligence (EI) correlates robustly with resilience, and the latter dynamically moderates mental well-being and life satisfaction among adolescents [3, 4]. An elevated Emotional Quotient (EQ) augments leadership capabilities and shapes adolescents' behavior and mental health outcomes [5–10] Adolescence, spanning the ages of 10 to 19, represents a critical phase marked by profound physical, emotional, and psychosocial transformations [11]. Lazarus defined emotion as a biological reaction adjusted to daily events and long-term labour, creating the urge to succeed and prosper [12]. However, emotion is positively directed by EI, which aids in understanding and managing one’s and others' emotions, utilizing them to guide planning, achieving, and motivating one’s life progress [13]. EI can be broken down into four distinct, yet related, capabilities; perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions, which encompasses diverse skills such as time management, communication, relationship-building, and community engagement [13, 14]. During adolescence, emotional intelligence advances with brain growth as the cortical and limbic systems become more responsive, generating emotional fluctuations [15]. The aforementioned biological concept of emotion stresses the preventive role of EI against undesired consequences of mental distress and aggression while fostering well-being, prosocial behavior, academic performance, and personal achievement. Resilience is to rise after being stressed, an endurance generated out of facing demanding life events and adversities, lowering their detrimental effects. Resilience is a product of inner capabilities such as self-esteem and an outer support system [16–18]. A study conducted among emerging adult students unveiled compelling correlations among resilience, self-esteem, extraversion, and neuroticism, highlighting the indispensable role of emotional equilibrium and self-confidence when confronting life's daunting challenges [19]. Mental health serves as the linchpin for holistic development, encompassing psychological and social well-being with the absence of emotional and behavioral disruptions. It emerges from the intricate interplay of individual personality, intimate relationships, biological factors, societal dynamics, and structural elements. The protective shield wielded by emotional intelligence and awareness extends its influence against destructive behaviors and substance use; by enhancing social integration, bolstering academic achievements, promoting coping strategies, and, significantly, forecasting the emergence of anxiety and depression among the youth [7, 20–22].

Emotional intelligence is inversely correlated with alcohol and tobacco use among middle school students, underscoring its protective role in navigating peer pressures [23]. Furthermore, emotional intelligence contributes to mental and social well-being, while resilience equips individuals to navigate life's challenges with fortitude. Hence EI and resilience might protect against elevated levels of depression and anxiety, especially during the transition to college, which have been linked to adverse academic outcomes, emphasizing the intricate relationship between mental health and academic performance [24]. In addition, EI and psychological well-being are influenced by parenting styles [25, 26], Kerr et al. highlighted the integral role of parental support in the development of neurocircuitry related to emotional regulation [27]. Furthermore, the synergy between parental support and EI bolsters resilience and buffers against depression [5, 28]. Conversely, inadequate parenting practices have been associated with poor negative outcomes such as higher rates of adolescent cigarette smoking at the school level [29]. The intricate developmental changes that naturally emerge during adolescence often entail challenges, including alterations in family and peer relationships, forming significant social and psychological stressors, potentially leading to turmoil [30]. Notably, physical punishment is prevalent within Sudanese families, yielding adverse consequences such as developmental issues, emotional immaturity, heightened emotional vulnerability, and school-related problems [31]. Hassan et al concluded that EI has indirectly influenced mental health problems among Iranian adolescents through spiritual intelligence [32].

It is disconcerting that mental stability remains an overlooked facet of life for Sudanese communities and is overshadowed by economic hardships and stigma. Investigations delving into the mental well-being of adolescents and exploring the mediating impact of emotional intelligence, especially within the context of African adolescents, remain conspicuously sparse [6, 25, 33, 34]. Consequently, any form of investment in this realm is paramount. Such investments are indispensable, serving as the crucible for enabling the youth to flourish, thereby unlocking their full potential in both personal and professional spheres [35]. Moreover, the early cultivation of emotional intelligence and resilience stands as a promising avenue for empowering the youth to lead and embrace a healthier lifestyle [36]. The promotion of resilience becomes imperative, compacting the routinely adverse reverberations of challenging circumstances [30]. In this study, we shed light on the mental health of Sudanese adolescents and its interrelation with emotional intelligence, and resilience. Sudanese adolescents in this study differ from other African studies in the religious and conservative cultural background [37] while compared to Middle Eastern populations in being constantly exposed to third-world staggering stressors (emotional deprivation, environmental, financial, and political constraints), which blocks psychological support and raises the mental health stigma but can potentiate resilience that results in further disregard to mental health making it a luxurious privilege [32]. The central objective of this study was to investigate the intricate associations between emotional intelligence, resilience, and mental health, framing this inquiry as an investment in fostering the prosperity of the Sudanese youth. This research endeavor extended further to propose recommendations aimed at fortifying individuals against preventable psychological challenges. This initiative was essential given the current deficiency of intervention strategies in addressing these critical issues in Sudan.

Materials and methods

Participants

A sample of 392 Sudanese high school students (males = 182; female = 210) were recruited in the study from four secondary schools in the Khartoum locality, Khartoum state, Sudan in 2022. The sample size was 386, using the formula n = z2(p*q)/d2, n = sample size (Z = The standard deviation for a confidence interval of 95% = 1.96, P = The proportion taken at 0.5 as there were no published data in the Khartoum locality, q = the frequency of non-occurrence of an event = 1 − P = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5, d = level of precision 0.5). A 10% non-response rate was added. A multistage sampling technique was used. Cluster sampling was used in the 1st stage. The study population was clustered into 414 clusters as each school was considered a cluster. Four clusters (schools) were selected using simple random sampling. In the 2nd stage, each cluster was stratified by grade into 3 grades involving all classes in each school, and in the 3rd stage, systematic random sampling was used to choose the selected number of students from each class. The participants completed the survey during regularly scheduled class periods using a hard copy and an online Google-designed questionnaire in Arabic and English. A brief explanation of the study and the questionnaire was provided verbally to all the participants, and written consent was obtained from each participant. Students were notified they could discontinue at any point, and those who did were excluded from the final sample (n = 2).

Socio-demographic data

10 items of socio-demographic data (age, gender, ethnicity, general academic performance, high school level, daily allowance, family size, parents’ educational level, parents’ employment, parents’ status, parents' civil status) were used to describe the participants' characteristics.

Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire- Short Form (TEIQ-SF)

Comprised of 30 questions to assess EI formed of 4 factors and 15 facets. Factors include sociability, emotionality, well-being, and self-control while facets incorporate adaptability, self-esteem, assertiveness, low impulsiveness, stress management, emotion regulation, emotion management, trait empathy, trait happiness, trait optimism, social motivation, social awareness, emotion perception, emotion expression, and relationships. Every facet was represented by 2 questions, and each question was rated from 1 to 7 (1 = completely disagree,…,7 = completely agree). The final scores were interpreted as follows; below 90 scores (low), 90–110 scores (moderate), and more than 110 scores (high) [38, 39].

Brief Resilience Scale-6 (BRS-6)

Brief resilience scale-6 (BRS-6) is an instrument of 6 items, which operationalizes resilience as a skill of rapid recovery following unpleasant events comprised of six questions, each question is answered in a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree,…5 = strongly agree). It is a reliable mean of assessing resilience as the ability to recover from stress and may provide unique and important information about individuals coping with health-related stressors [36, 37]. Scores were interpreted as follows; 1.00–2.99 (low), 3.00–4.30 (normal), 4.31–5.00 (high) [40, 41].

Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4)

An ultra-brief and accurate measurement of core symptoms/signs of depression and anxiety has shown to be a valid brief screening tool [42, 43]. Each item scored from 0 to 3 and the total score is the sum of the four items as follows: 0–2 (normal), 3–5 (mild), 6–8 (moderate), and 9–12 (severe).

Statistical analysis

Data was processed and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25; descriptive and inferential statistics were applied. Given that independent variables are age, gender, ethnicity, general academic performance, high school level, daily allowance, family size, parents’ educational level, parent’s civil status, and employment. Emotional Intelligence, Resilience, depression, and anxiety were dependent variables. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity.

Results

The mean age of the study participants was 15 ± 1.3 years; 182 (46.4%) males and 210 (53.6%) females, and 37.5% of the participants studied in governmental schools while 62.5% were in private schools (Table 1). Most of the respondents (50.5%) take 500 pounds as a daily allowance. 80.3% of responders indicated that their family size is less than eight.Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants

Variable		N (%)	
Type of education	Governmental	147 (37.5)	
	Private	245 (62.5)	
Gender	Female	210 (53.6)	
	Male	182 (46.4)	
General academic performance	Fail	3 (0.8)	
	Pass	50 (12.8)	
	Good	58 (14.8)	
	Very good	145 (37.0)	
	Excellent	136 (34.7)	
Academic level	Junior	127 (32.4)	
	Sophomore	119 (30.4)	
	Senior	135 (34.4)	
	Senior repeat	11 (2.8)	
Mother’s educational level	Higher degrees	56 (14.3)	
	Bachelor degree	185 (47.2)	
	High school diploma or equivalent	95 (24.2)	
	Less than a high school diploma	33 (8.4)	
	Illiterate	23 (5.9)	
Father’s educational level	Higher degrees	52 (13.3)	
	Bachelor degree	229 (58.4)	
	High school diploma or equivalent	70 (17.9)	
	Less than a high school diploma	27 (6.9)	
	Illiterate	14 (3.6)	
Mother employment	Employed	152 (38.8)	
	Unemployed	240 (61.2)	
Father employment	Employed	372 (94.9)	
	Unemployed	20 (5.1)	
Parent status	Married	368 (93.9)	
	Separated	24 (6.1)	
If your parents do not live with you in the same house, whom do you live with?	Other than parents	16 (4.1)	
	The father	18 (4.6)	
	The mother	67 (17.1)	

Emotional intelligence levels were normal to high (M 131.53 ± SD 22.16) with a minimum score of 60 and a maximum of 206. On the other hand, resilience levels were low to normal (M 3.20 ± SD 0.51) with a minimum score of 1.67 and a maximum of 4.50.

Using Pearson’s correlation analysis, EI and resilience were weakly positively associated [r (390) = 0.272, p-value = 0.01] i.e., high levels of emotional intelligence were associated with higher levels of resilience, and vice versa, remarking that positive correlation is almost similar across both genders as shown in Fig. 1.Fig. 1 A scatterplot displaying the relationship between emotional intelligence and resilience scores with regard to gender shows a positive correlation (r = 0.272)

Emotional intelligence had no direct significant relationship with levels of anxiety and depression or academic scoring. Conversely, resilience was positively correlated with levels of anxiety [r (390) = 0.105, p-value = 0.05] i.e., the more resilient an adolescent was, the more anxious he/she was. No relationship was found between resilience and levels of depression. A positive correlation was identified between levels of anxiety and depression (r = 0.540). Among the 392 participants, academic performance had a significant negative correlation with levels of anxiety (r = − 0.102) i.e., the more anxious adolescents were, the lower their academic performances (Table 2).Table 2 A Pearson correlation analysis of emotional intelligence, anxiety, depression, and resilience

Variable	Correlation	EI	Anxiety	Depression	Resilience	
EI	Pearson Correlation	1	0.083	0.056	0.272**	
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.100	0.265	0.000	
Anxiety	Pearson Correlation	0.083	1	0.540**	0.105*	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.100		0.000	0.037	
Depression	Pearson Correlation	0.056	0.540**	1	0.090	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.265	0.000		0.075	
Resilience	Pearson Correlation	0.272**	0.105*	0.090	1	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000	0.037	0.075		
Academic performance	Pearson Correlation	− 0.039	− 0.102*	− 0.007	0.055	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.443	0.044	0.891	0.281	
EI emotional intelligence **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2- tailed). * Correlation is significant at P-value 0.05 or less

Levels of anxiety were positively correlated with the student's age [r (390) = 0.166, p-value = 0.01], the father’s condition [r (390) = 0.105, p-value = 0.05], and the father’s occupation (r = 0.105). Higher levels of anxiety were indicated when the father was divorced, widowed, or deceased or in cases of the father’s unemployment. Conversely, levels of anxiety were negatively associated with the mother’s occupation [r (390) = − 0.100, p-value = 0.05], indicating that the mother’s unemployment was related to lower anxiety levels. Parents’ marital status was positively correlated with resilience [r (390) = 0.127, p-value = 0.05] revealing higher resilience with those whose parents are separated. Also, age was positively correlated with levels of depression [r (390) = 0.106, p-value = 0.05], while emotional intelligence was not associated with any of these factors (Table 3).Table 3 A Pearson correlation analysis of the emotional intelligence and resilience scores, anxiety and depression levels with age, education type, and parents’ profile

Variable	Correlation	Resilience	Anxiety	Depression	EI	
Age	Pearson Correlation	0.040	0.166**	0.106*	0.005	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.429	0.001	0.036	0.919	
The daily allowance	Pearson Correlation	0.067	0.137**	0.031	0.098	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.188	0.007	0.537	0.053	
Father's condition	Pearson Correlation	− 0.023	0.105*	0.051	0.051	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.655	0.037	0.316	0.310	
Parents' status	Pearson Correlation	0.127*	0.014	0.047	0.028	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.012	0.778	0.358	0.581	
Mother's job	Pearson Correlation	− 0.052	− 0.100*	− 0.088	0.042	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.303	0.644	0.081	0.411	
Father's job	Pearson Correlation	0.015	0.106*	0.096	0.088	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.767	0.036	0.059	0.081	
EI: emotional intelligence. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

A total of 337 (86%) adolescents had high emotional intelligence scores, about two-thirds of the participants had normal resilience and one-third had low resilience levels as presented in Fig. 2, respectively. Also, 349 students (89%) suffered from mild to moderate levels of anxiety and 305 students (78%) had mild to moderate levels of depression (Fig. 3).Fig. 2 The levels of Emotional Intelligence and resilience among Sudanese Adolescents

Fig. 3 Screening of signs/symptoms of anxiety and depression among Sudanese adolescents

Discussion

Our research findings presented three distinctive observations; firstly, no significant correlation was found between emotional intelligence (EI) and levels of anxiety or depression. Secondly, anxiety exhibited a positive association with resilience and daily allowance, which contrasted with previous studies indicating an inverse relationship between anxiety and resilience [44, 45]. Thirdly, our findings diverged from studies linking financial hardship to poor mental health status among adolescents [46, 47]. This inconsistency may be attributed to variances in measurement methodologies or factors such as distinct parenting styles, quality of parent–child attachment, prior mental health experiences, or peer influences [47–51]. Consistent with existing literature, our study found that parental education was unrelated to neither mild or moderate anxiety levels [52]. However, it reaffirmed the connection between parental separation and adolescents with mild or moderate anxiety levels, solidifying the notion that an unstable nurturing environment significantly impacts mental well-being [53]. This aligned with previous studies illustrating the role of parental education and family conflict in shaping psychological well-being [54–56]. Increased levels of anxiety were associated with maternal employment and parental unemployment. Such findings can be explained by the cultural norms of Sudanese society and the social view regarding the qualities of a good mother or a good father. Increased levels of anxiety may be attributed to decreased communication between the mother and her children which is affected by the mother’s limited or diminished presence at home due to her occupation. In contrast, a father’s presence at home due to his unemployment would distort the cultural image of a good father who is traditionally seen as “hardworking, tolerant, brave, dominant, resolute” and should be the primary provider to be the ultimate role model for his sons [31]. Despite paternal unemployment intensifying anxiety levels, financial hardship did not affect the adolescents' mental status for the structure of the Sudanese community is centered around communal interdependence and collective responsibility for the youth so that distant relatives provide financial assistance in the setting of parental unemployment [31, 53].

We found that Sudanese adolescents had normal to high levels of emotional intelligence (EI). Moreover, our findings indicated a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and resilience, consistent with Sharma's findings highlighting the significant relationship between resilience and emotional intelligence [57]. Remarkably, unlike prior studies, our research did not establish a significant association between parental education and adolescents' emotional intelligence [58]. Additionally, aligning with the literature, resilience significantly mediates the relationship between the various dimensions of emotional intelligence and perceived stress, operating as a negative predictor of stress [59]. In contrast to the existing literature, our study did not identify a direct link between emotional intelligence and anxiety and depression levels [22, 60]. Our results also challenged studies implicating emotional dysregulation as a risk factor for mild and moderate anxiety levels among youth and those highlighting emotional intelligence as a protective factor against psychiatric morbidities and suicide [61, 62]. This deviation may be attributed to the challenging family conditions experienced by many adolescents, including poverty, violence, substance abuse, family discord, and personal illnesses. These adverse conditions can hinder normal intellectual, social, and emotional development, consequently fostering anxiety and impeding their full potential, especially in the context of Sudan as a third-world country. However, it is noteworthy that despite these challenges, many children exhibit resilience [63]. To support resilience in children, it is essential to understand both environmental risk factors and protective factors [64].

Despite the widely recognized gender difference in the prevalence of anxiety, our analysis did not reveal any gender disparities in the aforementioned results, contrary to the findings of Ostrov et al., which outlined how different genders manifest psychological disturbances differently. Boys tended to exhibit acting-out behaviors, such as theft, running away, or substance abuse, while girls displayed inward-focused symptoms like depression and anxiety [65]. Furthermore, our study identified an inverse correlation between mild and moderate anxiety levels and academic performance, consistent with the conception that students with lower test anxiety levels tend to achieve higher academic results compared to those with higher test anxiety [66]. However, our results differed from a study conducted in Spain revealing moderate levels of anxiety boosting academic performance. But, findings such as the substantial association between depression and anxiety levels and academic performance, aligned with our research [67]. Importantly, our study did not find a significant inverse association between mild and moderate depression levels and academic performance, which contradicts the known depression effect on academic performance. Depressive symptoms reported can be attributed to the pubertal hormonal changes and perceived self-image among adolescents [68]. Furthermore, our results supported existing evidence that depression and anxiety levels tend to increase with age [69, 70].

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is imperative to delve into the underlying causes of the reported levels of anxiety and depression prevalent among secondary school students. Such an investigation might facilitate early detection, enabling appropriate care and elevating academic performance among students. In addition, future studies in Sudan should also focus on the factors that promote resilience among adolescents and the impact of the parenting style on resilience and mental health status. Moreover, cultivating higher levels of emotional intelligence in adolescents can equip them with increased resilience, which, in turn, serves as an invaluable asset across various facets of their current and future lives.

Recommendations

Recommendations for addressing these mental health challenges encompass the integration of comprehensive psychological counseling services and continuous monitoring as integral components of secondary school programs. Furthermore, establishing a supportive educational environment, characterized by nurturing student–teacher relationships, is paramount [71]. This study underscores the importance of developing a tailored Sudanese model to assess emotional intelligence and resilience among adolescents and future studies should focus on exploring additional risk factors contributing to anxiety and depression.

It is essential to prioritize psychological interventions targeting emotional intelligence and resilience to enhance adolescents' emotional well-being and mitigate stress and aggression [34, 59, 72]. Various strategies rooted in cognitive development, the influence of peer interactions, and transitional phases during adolescence offer promising avenues for peer and familial support [1].

Strengths and limitations

The study's strengths encompassed its pioneering exploration of mental health issues among Sudanese adolescents, shedding light on the evolving concepts of emotional intelligence and resilience within this vulnerable demographic. In addition, our sampling method of multistage cluster systematic random sampling minimizes sample selection bias. However, it is crucial to acknowledge potential limitations, such as the absence of stress measurement within the mental health assessment. Also, parental separation was observed to influence the participants' anxiety levels, but other factors were not included in the study, such as the quality of parenting style, parent–child relationships, or parental mental health, which could have impacted the reported results. Furthermore, the use of self-report measures potentiates bias in the assessment of the study variables and the cross-sectional nature of the study limits its generalizability. Furthermore, the absence of similar national-level studies underscores the need for further research to deepen our understanding of these complex issues.

Acknowledgements

We would like to extend our gratitude to Yousra Elgasim and Sanaa Ahmed for their contribution to the data collection and the participants who gave part of their time to participate in this study.

Author contributions

D.I.: study conception and design, data collection, ethical approval, writing, and reviewing. D.A., S.H., B.A., M.T., O.I., Z.A., Y.E., S.A., A.A., R.S., T.A.: data collection and manuscript reviewing. A.M.A., D.S., and I.E.: manuscript reviewing and proofreading. R.H.A: Supervision of the Study.

Funding

The study has not received any financial or material support.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate 

The study was conducted under the declaration of Helsinki and submitted for ethical clearance from the ethical committee of the Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum. Permission was granted from the Ministry of Education, the Khartoum Locality’s Education Office, and the schools' administrations. Also, informed consent was taken from the parents/legal guardians and each participant.

Consent for publication

Consent was taken from the schools’ administrators, the legal guardians/parents, and the participants.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
==== Refs
References

1. Kazdin AE Adolescent mental health: prevention and treatment programs Am Psychol 1993 8328730
Kazdin AE. Adolescent mental health: prevention and treatment programs. Am Psychol. 1993. 10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.127.8328730
2. World Health Organization WHO. Transforming mental health for all. 2022.
3. O’Connor M O’Reilly G Murphy E Connaughton L Hoctor E McHugh L Resilience mediates the cross-sectional relationship between mindfulness and positive mental health in early adolescence J Contextual Behav Sci 2021 21 171 175 10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.07.003
O’Connor M, O’Reilly G, Murphy E, Connaughton L, Hoctor E, McHugh L. Resilience mediates the cross-sectional relationship between mindfulness and positive mental health in early adolescence. J Contextual Behav Sci. 2021;21:171–5.
4. Ramos-Díaz E Rodríguez-Fernández A Axpe I Ferrara M Perceived emotional intelligence and life satisfaction among adolescent students: the mediating role of resilience J Happiness Stud 2019 1 20
Ramos-Díaz E, Rodríguez-Fernández A, Axpe I, Ferrara M. Perceived emotional intelligence and life satisfaction among adolescent students: the mediating role of resilience. J Happiness Stud. 2019;1:20.
5. El-Khodary B Samara M The mediating role of trait emotional intelligence, prosocial behaviour, parental support and parental psychological control on the relationship between war trauma, and PTSD and depression J Res Pers 2019 81 246 256 10.1016/j.jrp.2019.06.004
El-Khodary B, Samara M. The mediating role of trait emotional intelligence, prosocial behaviour, parental support and parental psychological control on the relationship between war trauma, and PTSD and depression. J Res Pers. 2019;81:246–56.
6. Lopez-Zafra E Ramos-álvarez MM El Ghoudani K Luque-Reca O Augusto-Landa JM Zarhbouch B Social support and emotional intelligence as protective resources for well-being in Moroccan adolescents Front Psychol 2019 10 1529 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01529 31354568
Lopez-Zafra E, Ramos-álvarez MM, El Ghoudani K, Luque-Reca O, Augusto-Landa JM, Zarhbouch B, et al. Social support and emotional intelligence as protective resources for well-being in Moroccan adolescents. Front Psychol. 2019;10:1529.31354568
7. Nur Furqani NZ. The role of emotional intelligence in adolescent development. 2020.
8. Pérez-Fuentes MDC Jurado MDMM Martín ABB Linares JJG Family functioning, emotional intelligence, and values: analysis of the relationship with aggressive behavior in adolescents Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019 16 3 478 10.3390/ijerph16030478 30736326
Pérez-Fuentes MDC, Jurado MDMM, Martín ABB, Linares JJG. Family functioning, emotional intelligence, and values: analysis of the relationship with aggressive behavior in adolescents. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(3):478.30736326
9. Sánchez-Álvarez N Berrios Martos MP Extremera N A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance in secondary education: a multi-stream comparison Front Psychol 2020 32793030
Sánchez-Álvarez N, Berrios Martos MP, Extremera N. A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance in secondary education: a multi-stream comparison. Front Psychol. 2020. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01517.32793030
10. Vega A Cabello R Megías-Robles A Gómez-Leal R Fernández-Berrocal P Emotional intelligence and aggressive behaviors in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis Trauma Violence Abuse 2022 23 4 1173 1183 10.1177/1524838021991296 33568015
Vega A, Cabello R, Megías-Robles A, Gómez-Leal R, Fernández-Berrocal P. Emotional intelligence and aggressive behaviors in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2022;23(4):1173–83.33568015
11. World Health Organization. Mental health of adolescents. 2021.
12. Lazarus RS Emotion and adaptation 1991 New York Oxford University Press 557
Lazarus RS. Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press; 1991. p. 557.
13. Cobb CD Mayer JD Emotional intelligence Educ Leadersh 2000 58 3 14 18
Cobb CD, Mayer JD. Emotional intelligence. Educ Leadersh. 2000;58(3):14–8.
14. Salovey P, Grewal D. The science of emotional intelligence. 2005.
15. Eiland L Romeo RD Stress and the developing adolescent brain Neuroscience 2013 249 162 171 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.10.048 23123920
Eiland L, Romeo RD. Stress and the developing adolescent brain. Neuroscience. 2013;249:162–71.23123920
16. Garima Sharma, Naveel Kaur. Resilience for positive mental health among adolescent. International Journal of Applied Home Science. 2020;7(March–June (2020)).
17. Luthar SS Cicchetti D Becker B The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work Child Dev 2000 71 543 562 10.1111/1467-8624.00164 10953923
Luthar SS, Cicchetti D, Becker B. The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Dev. 2000;71:543–62.10953923
18. Wang K Kong F Linking trait mindfulness to life satisfaction in adolescents: the mediating role of resilience and self-esteem Child Indic Res 2020 13 1 321 335 10.1007/s12187-019-09698-4
Wang K, Kong F. Linking trait mindfulness to life satisfaction in adolescents: the mediating role of resilience and self-esteem. Child Indic Res. 2020;13(1):321–35.
19. Balgiu B Self-esteem, personality and resilience. Study of a students emerging adults group J Educ Sci Psychol 2017 VII LXIX 93 99
Balgiu B. Self-esteem, personality and resilience. Study of a students emerging adults group. J Educ Sci Psychol. 2017;VII(LXIX):93–9.
20. Kranzler A Young JF Hankin BL Abela JRZ Elias MJ Selby EA Emotional awareness: a transdiagnostic predictor of depression and anxiety for children and adolescents J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2016 45 3 262 269 25658297
Kranzler A, Young JF, Hankin BL, Abela JRZ, Elias MJ, Selby EA. Emotional awareness: a transdiagnostic predictor of depression and anxiety for children and adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2016;45(3):262–9. 10.1080/15374416.2014.987379.25658297
21. Lopes PN Brackett MA Nezlek JB Schütz A Sellin I Salovey P Emotional intelligence and social interaction Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2004 30 8 1018 1034 15257786
Lopes PN, Brackett MA, Nezlek JB, Schütz A, Sellin I, Salovey P. Emotional intelligence and social interaction. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2004;30(8):1018–34. 10.1177/0146167204264762.15257786
22. Resurrección DM Salguero JM Ruiz-Aranda D Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: a systematic review J Adolesc 2014 37 4 461 472 10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.012 24793394
Resurrección DM, Salguero JM, Ruiz-Aranda D. Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: a systematic review. J Adolesc. 2014;37(4):461–72.24793394
23. Trinidad DR Johnson CA The association between emotional intelligence and early adolescent tobacco and alcohol use Pers Individ Dif 2002 32 1 95 105 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00008-3
Trinidad DR, Johnson CA. The association between emotional intelligence and early adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Pers Individ Dif. 2002;32(1):95–105.
24. Kroshus E Hawrilenko M Browning A Stress, self-compassion, and well-being during the transition to college Soc Sci Med 2021 1 269
Kroshus E, Hawrilenko M, Browning A. Stress, self-compassion, and well-being during the transition to college. Soc Sci Med. 2021;1:269.
25. Olutope AE Bede CA Olufunmilayo AO Parenting style, emotional intelligence and psychological health of Nigerian Children Asian J Pediatr Res 2019 30 1 11 10.9734/ajpr/2019/v2i230100
Olutope AE, Bede CA, Olufunmilayo AO. Parenting style, emotional intelligence and psychological health of Nigerian Children. Asian J Pediatr Res. 2019;30:1–11.
26. Nguyen QAN Tran TD Tran TA Nguyen TA Fisher J Perceived parenting styles and emotional intelligence among adolescents in Vietnam Fam J 2020 28 4 441 454 10.1177/1066480719896558
Nguyen QAN, Tran TD, Tran TA, Nguyen TA, Fisher J. Perceived parenting styles and emotional intelligence among adolescents in Vietnam. Fam J. 2020;28(4):441–54.
27. Kerr KL Ratliff EL Cosgrove KT Bodurka J Morris AS Simmons WK Parental influences on neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation Trends Neurosci Educ. 2019 16 100118 10.1016/j.tine.2019.100118 31540673
Kerr KL, Ratliff EL, Cosgrove KT, Bodurka J, Morris AS, Simmons WK. Parental influences on neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation. Trends Neurosci Educ. 2019;16: 100118.31540673
28. Gardner AA Lambert CA Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence J Adolesc 2019 1 71 162 166 10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.008
Gardner AA, Lambert CA. Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence. J Adolesc. 2019;1(71):162–6.
29. Mrug S Gaines J Su W Windle M School-level substance use: effects on early adolescents’ alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use* J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2010 71 488 495 10.15288/jsad.2010.71.488 20557827
Mrug S, Gaines J, Su W, Windle M. School-level substance use: effects on early adolescents’ alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use*. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2010;71:488–95.20557827
30. Sánchez-Teruel D María Auxiliadora RB Protective factors promoting resilience to suicide in young people and adolescents Papeles del Psicologo 2014 27 35 181 192
Sánchez-Teruel D, María Auxiliadora RB. Protective factors promoting resilience to suicide in young people and adolescents. Papeles del Psicologo. 2014;27(35):181–92.
31. Mohammed A, Ai-Awad EH, Al-Awad EH. Childhood behavior problems in Urban Sudan. 1997.
32. Hassan SA Shabani J The mediating role of emotional intelligence between spiritual intelligence and mental health problems among Iranian adolescents Psychol Stud 2013 58 1 73 79 10.1007/s12646-012-0163-9
Hassan SA, Shabani J. The mediating role of emotional intelligence between spiritual intelligence and mental health problems among Iranian adolescents. Psychol Stud. 2013;58(1):73–9.
33. Alavi M Mehrinezhad SA Amini M Parthaman Singh MK Family functioning and trait emotional intelligence among youth Health Psychol Open. 2017 29379632
Alavi M, Mehrinezhad SA, Amini M, Parthaman Singh MK. Family functioning and trait emotional intelligence among youth. Health Psychol Open. 2017. 10.1177/2055102917748461.29379632
34. Bisji JS Ogbole AJ Umar SJ Makama JA Charity T Raymond P Emotional intelligence among Nigerian adolescents: the role of training J Psychol Clin Psychiatry. 2019 10 5 191 195 10.15406/jpcpy.2019.10.00652
Bisji JS, Ogbole AJ, Umar SJ, Makama JA, Charity T, Raymond P, et al. Emotional intelligence among Nigerian adolescents: the role of training. J Psychol Clin Psychiatry. 2019;10(5):191–5.
35. Ononye U Ogbeta M Ndudi F Bereprebofa D Maduemezia I Academic resilience, emotional intelligence, and academic performance among undergraduate students Knowl Perform Manag 2022 6 1 1 10 10.21511/kpm.06(1).2022.01
Ononye U, Ogbeta M, Ndudi F, Bereprebofa D, Maduemezia I. Academic resilience, emotional intelligence, and academic performance among undergraduate students. Knowl Perform Manag. 2022;6(1):1–10.
36. Trigueros R Aguilar-Parra JM Cangas AJ Bermejo R Ferrandiz C López-Liria R Influence of emotional intelligence, motivation and resilience on academic performance and the adoption of healthy lifestyle habits among adolescents Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019 16 16 2810 10.3390/ijerph16162810 31394722
Trigueros R, Aguilar-Parra JM, Cangas AJ, Bermejo R, Ferrandiz C, López-Liria R. Influence of emotional intelligence, motivation and resilience on academic performance and the adoption of healthy lifestyle habits among adolescents. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(16):2810.31394722
37. Theron L Resilience of sub-Saharan children and adolescents: a scoping review Transcult Psychiatry 2020 60 6 1017 1039 32723159
Theron L. Resilience of sub-Saharan children and adolescents: a scoping review. Transcult Psychiatry. 2020;60(6):1017–39. 10.1177/1363461520938916.32723159
38. Dassean KA Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (TEIQue-SF) Cogent Psychol. 2023 10 1 2171184
Dassean KA. Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (TEIQue-SF). Cogent Psychol. 2023;10(1):2171184. 10.1080/23311908.2023.2171184.
39. Petrides K V. Psychometric Properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). In 2009. p. 85–101.
40. Smith BW Dalen J Wiggins K Tooley E Christopher P Bernard J The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back Int J Behav Med 2008 15 3 194 200 10.1080/10705500802222972 18696313
Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Bernard J. The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. Int J Behav Med. 2008;15(3):194–200.18696313
41. Baattaiah BA Alharbi MD Khan F Aldhahi MI Translation and population-based validation of the Arabic version of the brief resilience scale Ann Med 2023 55 1 2230887 10.1080/07853890.2023.2230887 37395119
Baattaiah BA, Alharbi MD, Khan F, Aldhahi MI. Translation and population-based validation of the Arabic version of the brief resilience scale. Ann Med. 2023;55(1):2230887.37395119
42. AlHadi AN AlAteeq DA Al-Sharif E Bawazeer HM Alanazi H AlShomrani AT An arabic translation, reliability, and validation of Patient Health Questionnaire in a Saudi sample Ann Gen Psychiatry 2017 16 1 32 28878812
AlHadi AN, AlAteeq DA, Al-Sharif E, Bawazeer HM, Alanazi H, AlShomrani AT, et al. An arabic translation, reliability, and validation of Patient Health Questionnaire in a Saudi sample. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2017;16(1):32. 10.1186/s12991-017-0155-1.28878812
43. Materu J Kuringe E Nyato D Galishi A Mwanamsangu A Katebalila M The psychometric properties of PHQ-4 anxiety and depression screening scale among out of school adolescent girls and young women in Tanzania: a cross-sectional study BMC Psychiatry 2020 20 1 321 32560705
Materu J, Kuringe E, Nyato D, Galishi A, Mwanamsangu A, Katebalila M, et al. The psychometric properties of PHQ-4 anxiety and depression screening scale among out of school adolescent girls and young women in Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry. 2020;20(1):321. 10.1186/s12888-020-02735-5.32560705
44. Hjemdal O Vogel PA Solem S Hagen K Stiles TC The relationship between resilience and levels of anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adolescents Clin Psychol Psychother 2011 18 4 314 321 10.1002/cpp.719 20806419
Hjemdal O, Vogel PA, Solem S, Hagen K, Stiles TC. The relationship between resilience and levels of anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adolescents. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2011;18(4):314–21.20806419
45. Konaszewski K Niesiobędzka M Surzykiewicz J Resilience and mental health among juveniles: role of strategies for coping with stress Health Qual Life Outcomes 2021 33653357
Konaszewski K, Niesiobędzka M, Surzykiewicz J. Resilience and mental health among juveniles: role of strategies for coping with stress. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2021. 10.1186/s12955-021-01701-3.33653357
46. Kolaitis G Giannakopoulos G Greek financial crisis and child mental health Lancet 2015 386 335 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61402-7 26227459
Kolaitis G, Giannakopoulos G. Greek financial crisis and child mental health. Lancet. 2015;386:335.26227459
47. Sakellari E Athanasopoulou C Kokkonen P Leino-Kilpi H Mental health needs of adolescents assessed during the years of global financial crisis: a systematic review Med Arch 2020 74 4 298 304 10.5455/medarh.2020.74.298-304 33041449
Sakellari E, Athanasopoulou C, Kokkonen P, Leino-Kilpi H. Mental health needs of adolescents assessed during the years of global financial crisis: a systematic review. Med Arch. 2020;74(4):298–304.33041449
48. Chan KMY Hong RY Ong XL Cheung HS Emotion dysregulation and symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence: Bidirectional longitudinal associations and the antecedent role of parent–child attachment Br J Dev Psychol 2023 41 291 305 10.1111/bjdp.12445 36882864
Chan KMY, Hong RY, Ong XL, Cheung HS. Emotion dysregulation and symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence: Bidirectional longitudinal associations and the antecedent role of parent–child attachment. Br J Dev Psychol. 2023;41:291–305.36882864
49. Clayborne ZM Kingsbury M Sampasa-Kinyaga H Sikora L Lalande KM Colman I Parenting practices in childhood and depression, anxiety, and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: a systematic review Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2021 56 4 619 638 32892249
Clayborne ZM, Kingsbury M, Sampasa-Kinyaga H, Sikora L, Lalande KM, Colman I. Parenting practices in childhood and depression, anxiety, and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: a systematic review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2021;56(4):619–38. 10.1007/s00127-020-01956-z.32892249
50. Richards L Wood N Ruiz L The mental health needs of looked after children in a local authority permanent placement team and the value of the goodman SDQ Adopt Foster 2006 30 43 52 10.1177/030857590603000206
Richards L, Wood N, Ruiz L. The mental health needs of looked after children in a local authority permanent placement team and the value of the goodman SDQ. Adopt Foster. 2006;30:43–52.
51. West AE Williams E Suzukovich E Strangeman K Novins D A mental health needs assessment of urban American Indian youth and families Am J Community Psychol 2012 49 441 453 10.1007/s10464-011-9474-6 21972010
West AE, Williams E, Suzukovich E, Strangeman K, Novins D. A mental health needs assessment of urban American Indian youth and families. Am J Community Psychol. 2012;49:441–53.21972010
52. Van Oort FVA Greaves-Lord K Ormel J Verhulst FC Huizink AC Risk indicators of anxiety throughout adolescence: the trails study Depress Anxiety 2011 28 6 485 494 10.1002/da.20818 21509913
Van Oort FVA, Greaves-Lord K, Ormel J, Verhulst FC, Huizink AC. Risk indicators of anxiety throughout adolescence: the trails study. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(6):485–94.21509913
53. Spence SH Najman JM Bor W O’callaghan MJ Williams GM Maternal anxiety and depression, poverty and marital relationship factors during early childhood as predictors of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescence J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002 43 457 469 10.1111/1469-7610.00037 12030592
Spence SH, Najman JM, Bor W, O’callaghan MJ, Williams GM. Maternal anxiety and depression, poverty and marital relationship factors during early childhood as predictors of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2002;43:457–69.12030592
54. Brooks JE Strengthening resilience in children and youths: maximizing opportunities through the schools Child Sch 2006 28 2 69 76 10.1093/cs/28.2.69
Brooks JE. Strengthening resilience in children and youths: maximizing opportunities through the schools. Child Sch. 2006;28(2):69–76.
55. Luthar S Vulnerability and resilience: a study of high-risk adolescents Child Dev 1991 1 62 600 616 10.2307/1131134
Luthar S. Vulnerability and resilience: a study of high-risk adolescents. Child Dev. 1991;1(62):600–16.
56. Rak CF Patterson LE Promoting resilience in at-risk children J Couns Dev 1996 74 4 368 373 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1996.tb01881.x
Rak CF, Patterson LE. Promoting resilience in at-risk children. J Couns Dev. 1996;74(4):368–73.
57. Sharma N. Adolescent resilience in relation to emotional intelligence stress parental bonding and interpersonal reactivity. Shodhganga. 2012. Accessed 19 Jul 2023. http://hdl.handle.net/10603/81114
58. Argyriou E Bakoyannis G Tantaros S Parenting styles and trait emotional intelligence in adolescence Scand J Psychol 2016 57 1 42 49 10.1111/sjop.12266
Argyriou E, Bakoyannis G, Tantaros S. Parenting styles and trait emotional intelligence in adolescence. Scand J Psychol. 2016;57(1):42–9.
59. Sarrionandia A Ramos-Díaz E Fernández-Lasarte O Resilience as a mediator of emotional intelligence and perceived stress: a cross-country study Front Psychol 2018 30622503
Sarrionandia A, Ramos-Díaz E, Fernández-Lasarte O. Resilience as a mediator of emotional intelligence and perceived stress: a cross-country study. Front Psychol. 2018. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02653.30622503
60. Fernandez-Berrocal P, Alcaide R, Extremera N, Pizarro D. The role of emotional intelligence in anxiety and depression among adolescents. Individual Differences Research. 2006. www.idr-journal.com
61. Schneider RL Arch JJ Landy LN Hankin BL The longitudinal effect of emotion regulation strategies on anxiety levels in children and adolescents J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2018 47 6 978 991 27254420
Schneider RL, Arch JJ, Landy LN, Hankin BL. The longitudinal effect of emotion regulation strategies on anxiety levels in children and adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018;47(6):978–91. 10.1080/15374416.2016.1157757.27254420
62. Cha C Nock M Emotional intelligence is a protective factor for suicidal behavior J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009 48 4 422 430 10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181984f44 19318882
Cha C, Nock M. Emotional intelligence is a protective factor for suicidal behavior. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(4):422–30.19318882
63. Zolkoski SM Bullock LM Resilience in children and youth: a review Child Youth Serv Rev 2012 34 12 2295 2303 10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.08.009
Zolkoski SM, Bullock LM. Resilience in children and youth: a review. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2012;34(12):2295–303.
64. Alvord MK Grados JJ Enhancing resilience in children: a proactive approach Prof Psychol Res Pract 2005 Vol. 36 238 245 10.1037/0735-7028.36.3.238
Alvord MK, Grados JJ. Enhancing resilience in children: a proactive approach. Prof Psychol Res Pract. 2005;Vol. 36:238–45.
65. Ostrov E Offer D Howard KI Gender differences in adolescent symptomatology: a normative study J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989 28 3 394 398 10.1097/00004583-198905000-00016 2738006
Ostrov E, Offer D, Howard KI. Gender differences in adolescent symptomatology: a normative study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28(3):394–8.2738006
66. Alam M. A study of test anxiety, self-esteem and academic performance among adolescents. IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior. 2013. https://www.proquest.com/openview/a2edc84dfb235c56716fd38a58ab0818/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029985. Accessed 20 Jul 2023.
67. Fernández-Castillo A Gutiérrez-Rojas M Selective attention, anxiety, depressive symptomatology and academic performance in adolescents Electron J Res Educ Psychol 2009 1 7 49 76
Fernández-Castillo A, Gutiérrez-Rojas M. Selective attention, anxiety, depressive symptomatology and academic performance in adolescents. Electron J Res Educ Psychol. 2009;1(7):49–76.
68. Jackson S, Goossens L. Handbook of adolescent development. 2020.
69. Hale WW III Raaijmakers Q Muris P Meeus WIM Psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED) in the general adolescent population J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005 44 3 283 290 15725973
Hale WW III, Raaijmakers Q, Muris P, Meeus WIM. Psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED) in the general adolescent population. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(3):283–90. 10.1097/00004583-200503000-00013.15725973
70. Waite P Whittington L Creswell C Parent-child interactions and adolescent anxiety: a systematic review Psychopathol Rev. 2014 1 1 51 76 10.5127/pr.033213
Waite P, Whittington L, Creswell C. Parent-child interactions and adolescent anxiety: a systematic review. Psychopathol Rev. 2014;1(1):51–76.
71. Guo J Liu L Zhao B Wang D Teacher support and mental well-being in Chinese adolescents: the mediating role of negative emotions and resilience Front Psychol 2020 22 10
Guo J, Liu L, Zhao B, Wang D. Teacher support and mental well-being in Chinese adolescents: the mediating role of negative emotions and resilience. Front Psychol. 2020;22:10.
72. Akbari B Effectiveness of training psychological resilience on aggression and happiness among students J Holist Nurs Midwifery 2016 27 1 1 10.18869/acadpub.hnmj.27.1.1
Akbari B. Effectiveness of training psychological resilience on aggression and happiness among students. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2016;27(1):1.
