
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)12582-0
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36551
e36551
Case Report
A case report on dietary needs of the rowing athlete winner of the triple crown
Ficarra Giovanni a
Mannucci Carmen a
Franco Alessio b
Bitto Alessandra abitto@unime.it
c⁎
Trimarchi Fabio a
Di Mauro Debora a
a Department of Biomedical Sciences, Dental Sciences, and Morpho-Functional Imaging, University Hospital, Messina, Italy
b Istituto Nazionale di Medicina e Scienze dello Sport, I.M.S.S. (Sport e Salute), Roma, Italy
c Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Messina, Italy
⁎ Corresponding author. PhD Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Torre Biologica 5th floor, “AOU” Policlinico G. Martino. Via C. Valeria, Gazzi, 98125 Messina, Italy. abitto@unime.it
21 8 2024
15 9 2024
21 8 2024
10 17 e365514 12 2023
19 8 2024
19 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Sports nutrition is a topic that is often misinterpreted and sometimes abused. The often-used "shot-gun" method to meeting caloric needs by simply increasing caloric intake disregarding nutrient source is scientifically contrary to the need for a more careful study of the nutritional requirements of rowers.

Rowing by itself is a very demanding sport as typical training sessions use exercise intensities that range from very low submaximal work to short term supramaximal efforts. The intake in calories should take into account also the type of race that the athlete will afford.

In the case of the rower Giovanni Ficarra who won, in 16 months, three world competitions in the three different rowing disciplines, his dietary needs and training schedule significantly changed according to the type of competition, to be prepared for the extreme load of physical effort required to get the podium in such different conditions. This article in intended to provide recommendation for both coaches and athletes that are approaching rowing in its whole meaning and disciplines as Giovanni Ficarra did.

Keywords

Rowing
Coastal rowing
Ergometer
Nutrition
Dietary habits
Case report
==== Body
pmc1 Case presentation

1.1 Case history timeline

A classical 2000-m competitive rowing race requires a substantial aerobic effort contribution (75–80 %) and a 20–25 % of anaerobic energy, these latter are especially needed in the most critical periods of the race: at the start and again during the final sprint. Optimal energy production is dependent on several complex and interdependent physiological responses, especially the utilization of stored energy. In muscle fibers energy production begins with the use of ATP and phosphocreatine followed rapidly by the metabolism of intracellular carbohydrate (glycogen), fat, and protein which, when combined with oxygen, will provide the energy to sustain exercise.

Common elite rowers are tall, muscular, and with very low percentages of body fat, in the peculiar case of lightweight, both men and women tend to be smaller have a high proportion of their body composition represented as fat-free mass: men average about 70 kg in weight and 177 cm in height (5–9% fat mass) while lightweight women average 57 kg and 172 cm (10–14 % fat mass) respectively. These measures have been recently confirmed analyzing the participants to the 2022 World Championship in Czech Republic [1].

The health and wellbeing of lightweight rowers is a matter of concern for sports medicine doctors and scientists because, to maintain the weight, athletes drastically reduce calories and water intake, especially in the week preceding the competition with possible severe muscle and bone loss in the long term.

Data demonstrated that absolute maximal and peak oxygen consumptions of elite rowers are among the highest ever observed for an elite endurance athlete [2], in addition, recent ergometric and physiological data suggest that rowers are still evolving into better athletes, and if equipment and racing conditions keep pace with the physiological growth of the rowing athlete then the expectations of rowing performances will continue to increase.

In this framework, maximization of the technical and tactical preparation to get ready for an upcoming major competition is called peaking. During this state of training, the organism's adaptation capacities are maximal as well, and the neuro-muscular co-ordination is near perfect.

Peaking is a superior, biological state characterized by perfect health, a quick adaptability to training stimuli and a very good rate of recovery [3]. From a psychological point of view, peaking is a state of readiness for action. The athlete's nervous system adapts quickly and efficiently to the stress of competition. Athletes who reach this training state are also highly motivated and can tolerate various degrees of frustration which occur before, during and after competition [4]. To produce this level of tolerance, a coach can create many training sessions so the psychological stresses specific to the main competition are created. In the context of lightweight rowers all the above described conditions are also accompanied by the weight restriction [5] which creates an additional stressor specially during the peaking phase [6,7]. Thus, dietary habit has a very important role in helping the athlete to reach peaking without any additional stress due to a lack of energy or shortage of nutrients.

1.2 Presentation of case

The typical season for a senior, or a lightweight, rower includes several races during the year, the first one is the World Rowing Indoor Championship in February, and starting from March several races in classical Olympic boats are held in regional and national venues to get the qualification for international events. In June the season and so the training changes to get ready for the most important international competitions as the World Rowing Championship, usually held in September.

Training of lightweight rowers typically involves specific on-water and rowing ergometer training, non-specific aerobic activities such as running and cycling, and resistance training; the intensity and proportion of the various trainings undertaken depends on the phase of the season [8]. Unlike their heavyweight counterparts, most lightweight rowers report an increase in training load in the month prior to competition, presumably to assist with body mass management. This is in contrast with standard preparation practices of other athletes, typically following a stepwise reduction in workout volume prior to competition to alleviate any fatigue [9].

1.3 Dietary and training plan

In the particular case of season 2021, Giovanni Ficarra had to change his plans due to the cancellation of the Shanghai World Rowing Championship in July, because of COVID-19 pandemia. The only international rowing event confirmed was the World Rowing Coastal Beach Sprint Championship in Portugal in October, however that was a different kind of rowing discipline, and most of all without weight restrictions. Therefore the rower had to compete with taller and stronger opponents, since Ficarra is a 170 cm tall lightweight rower. The Beach Sprint discipline consists of a 10–50 m running on the beach (to start and finish the race) with an on-water distance of 250 m from the beach to the farthest turning buoy (buoys at approximately 85 m + 85 m + 80 m) with a 180° degree turn, that slows the rower speed, followed by 250 m of straight row and a last sprint once back on the beach; this required a different training to develop specific skills, and different nutritional plan given the fact that it is not required to stay below 70 kg.

For the training program the activities of the last week before race were switched from those reported in Table 1, Table 2; also, the nutritional plan was changed according to the summer season and to match the additional dietary needs (Table 3A, Table 3BA and 3B and Table 4A, Table 4BA and 4B).Table 1 Last week workout before outdoor race (Olympic boat). Distance race 2000 m.

Table 1	Ergometer	Running	Boat training	Ground workout	Stretching	
Day 1			10 km at strong pace changing to fast pace (15 strokes) every 1 km		15 min	
Day 2			pyramid workout as follows: 30 strokes at 36 spm x 3 reps; 40 strokes at 30 spm x 2 reps; 60 strokes at 26 spm;
last 100 strokes at 20 spm.
Repeat twice with 5 min rest time		15 min	
Day 3		20 minutes		50 minutes	15 min	
Day 4				10 km aerobic training flowed by technical exercises	15 min	
Day 5			Quick workout as follows:
2 km warm-up;
20 strokes (36 spm) x 4 reps;
20 strokes (44 spm) x 4 reps;
15 strokes (34 spm) x 4 reps;
15 strokes (38 spm) x 4 reps; 2620 m at fast pace (28–30 spm).		15 min	
Day 6			Simulated pre-race warm-up: 30 minutes as follows:
1000 m (36–38 spm) rest time 10 minutes
500 m (40–42 spm)		15 min	
Day 7	6km at strong pace.				15 min	
*spm: stroke per minute, rep: repetition.

Table 2 Last week workout before Coastal rowing beach sprint race. Distance race: 30–90 m of beach run and 500 m on the boat with slalom around buoys.

Table 2	Running	Boat training	Ground workout	Stretching	
Day 1		6 km at strong pace with buoy slalom every 1 km		15 min	
Day 2		Slalom workout as follows:
500 m slalom (32spm) x 2 reps;
125 m (34 spm) x 3 reps;
75 m (max spm) x 4 reps;
10 minutes technical exercises (20 spm)		15 min	
Day 3	20 min on the beach at strong pace		30 min	15 min	
Day 4		40 min aerobic training and technical exercises		15 min	
Day 5		Quick workout as follows:
2 km warm-up;
20 strokes at 36 spm x 4 reps;
20 strokes at 44 spm x 4 reps;
15 strokes at 34 spm x 4 reps;
15 strokes at 38 spm x 4 reps;
12 min strong pace (28–30 spm)		15 min	
Day 6		Simulated pre-race warm-up 30 min as follows:
500 m (max ability); rest time 10 minutes;
250 m (max ability)		15 min	
Day 7	warm-up 10 min on the sand	6km at slow strong pace and technical exercises		15 min	
*spm: stroke per minute, rep: repetition.

Table 3A Nutritional plan.

Table 3AFood Calories average 3500	Carbohydrates 55 %	Protein
27 %	Fibers
8 %	Lipids
10 %	Liquids	
Breakfast	White bread (80 g)
Or 8 whole wheat biscuits	Two whole eggs + 2 egg whites
Or white Greek yoghurt (100–200 g) with a spoonful of honey	Seasonal fruit		A squeeze of orange juice or fruit juice	
Snack	A sandwich 80g.	50 g. of smoked salmon
Or two hard boiled eggs			Fruit juice	
Lunch	First course pasta or rice (200g)
A fruit (200g)	A second course (150 g of white or red meat or fish)
Two whole eggs + 2 egg whites	Cooked seasonal vegetables with a spoonful of raw olive oil	Extra virgin olive oil (40 g)	Water	
Snack	A sandwich (80 g)
Or Greek yogurt with 3 tablespoons of jam	50g of turkey thight or bresaola			Water with Magnesium and Potassium	
Dinner	First course pasta or rice (100 g)
Fruit (200 g)	A second course (150 g of white or red meat or fish)	Cooked seasonal vegetables with a spoonful of raw olive oil	Extra virgin olive oil (40 g)	Water	
After Dinner	30 g of dark chocolate >75 %					

Table 3B Dietary plan for the last week before the race (only variations from Table 3A are reported).

Table 3BFood (Calories average 2800	Carbohydrates 60 %	Protein
20 %	Liquids	
Breakfast before morning workout (to be done 60-40 minutes)	10 dry biscuits
Or 4 rusks with jam or honey	5 g of branched amino acids (20 min before training)	A cup of tea with two teaspoons of honey or one of sugar	
Addon in case of endurance training		30 g of dried nuts	A fruit juice or sweetened tea with 4 teaspoons of honey or sugar	
During training in the first hour and a half			Drink water in small sips every 15–20 minutes	
During training after an hour and half			Maltodextrin 30g in 500ml of water	
Post training (consume within 15 minutes after training)	300 ml skimmed or oat or soy milk (after strength training)	30 g. protein powder (after strength training) or 40 g of parmesan (in case of endurance training)	A fruit juice	
Mid-morning snack	A sandwich 80g	50 g of smoked salmon
Or Two soft boiled eggs		
Before afternoon training (to be consumed 40 minutes before)	4 rusks with jam
Or 10 dry biscuits
Or a slice of tart with jam (100 g)		Water with Magnesium and Potassium	
During training in the first hour and a half			Drink water in small sips every 15–20 minutes	
During training after an hour and half			Maltodextrin 30g in 500ml of water	
Post training (consume within 15 minutes after training)	300 ml skimmed or oat or soy milk (after strength training)	Protein powder (30 g after strength training)
Or 5 g of essential amino acids (in case of endurance training)	A fruit juice	

Table 4A Nutritional plan -summer variation-.

Table 4AFood Calories average 3300	Carbohydrates 57 %	Protein
15 %	Fibers
8 %	Lipids
20 %	Liquids	
Breakfast	Pancakes (2) or Rusk (4–6) or Biscuits (6–8) or Cereal bread (100 g)	Eggs (2–3) omelette or soft boiled
Dried fruit (30–40g) or Dried meat	A fruit of choice
Or Seasonal vegetables	Peanut butter or Butter or Parmesan cheese	A squeeze of orange juice or fruit juice	
snack	A sandwich 80g.	Protein yogurt (90g)
Dried fruit (for example 6–8 almonds)	Seasonal fruit (100 g)		Water	
Lunch	First course (150 g of pasta or rice)	Second course (white or red meat or fish) about 150 g	Seasonal vegetables (preferably cooked) with a spoonful of raw olive oil Seasonal fruit (200 g)	Extra virgin olive oil 30 g	Water with Magnesium and Potassium	
Snack	Low fat high protein ice cream	50 g of turkey tight or bresaola				
Dinner	First course (100 g of pasta or rice)	Second course (white or red meat or fish) about (200–250 g)	A portion of vegetables (preferably cooked) with a spoonful of raw olive oil
Seasonal fruit (200 g)	Extra virgin olive oil 40 g	Water	
After Dinner	Protein pudding (80 g)					

Table 4B Dietary plan for the last week before summer races (only variations from Table 4A are reported).

Table 4BFood (Calories average 2750	Carbohydrates 60 %	Protein
23 %	Fibers
7 %	Lipids
10 %	Liquids	
Breakfast before morning workout (to be done 60-40 minutes)	6 rice crackers with 6 teaspoons of honey		Seasonal fruit (100 g)		A fruit juice	
Addon in case of endurance training		Dried nuts 30 g		Add a spoonful of ricotta cheese to each rice crackers		
During training in the first hour and a half		Branched amino acids (5 g)			Drink water in small sips every 15–20 minutes	
During training after an hour and half					Drink water in small sips every 15–20 minutes	
Post training (consume within 15 minutes after training)	Maltodextrins 30 g. in 500 ml water					
Mid-morning snack	Skimmed or oat or soy milk (300 ml)	Shake with rice milk (250 ml) seasonal fruit and whey protein (30 gr)				
Before afternoon training (to be consumed 40 minutes before)		essential amino acids (5 g)	Seasonal fruit (100 g)		Sweetened ice tea (20–25 g of sugar)	
During training in the first hour and a half	A sandwich	Omelette made with 4 egg whites, or with canned tuna				
During training after an hour and half	4 dry biscuits		Fruit salad (200 g) with 4 teaspoons of sugar		Water with Magnesium and Potassium	
Post training (consume within 15 minutes after training)	Maltodextrins 30 g. in 500 ml water	Shake with rice milk (250 ml) seasonal fruit and whey protein (30 g)			Drink water in small sips every 15–20 minutes	
	Skimmed or oat or soy milk (300 ml)				A fruit juice	
	Low fat, high protein ice cream				Sweetened ice tea (20–25 g of sugar)	

As a common indoor training machine in either case the athlete used a concept 2 rowing machine with different training schedules for a proper development of force and skills required to afford the specific competition.

When in October Ficarra approached the time trials he performed the best time from the very beginning of the competition and he kept doing the best times at all matches and won the World Championship. After this event Ficarra started to train again for the next season and specifically for the World Rowing Championship in Racice (Czech Republic, September 2022) in the specialty lightweight men's pair with his teammate Alessandro Durante. Ficarra has the role of stroke and so his training requires more rhythmic exercises to better keep the pace during the race. Moreover, due to the physical characteristics of the two rowers, Ficarra has to stay at 68 kg to keep the average of the team at 70kg, this requires more nutritional restrictions and exercises oriented to elongate muscle fibers rather than promote an enlargement, to stimulate strength and resistance, as suggested by a previous case study on a lightweight double sculls team racing at the Tokyo Olympics [10]. Starting from February 2022, Ficarra and Durante did three races as lightweight men's pair in regional (Sicilian region) events and two national races always qualifying as first in the podium, these results allowed the pair to compete in the trials in mid August to be assigned for representing Italy at the World Championship. From the qualification to the race Ficarra's training plan and nutritional needs followed what reported in Table 1, Table 4A, Table 4BB. In September 2022 the lightweight men's pair team composed by Ficarra and Durante won the World Rowing Championship, this represented the maximum achievable success for this specialty during a non-Olympic year. Following this victory, the World Rowing federation mentioned Ficarra as the first rower able to combine flat water and coastal rowing beach sprint successes, suggesting that the last achievement needed in his palmares was a world indoor competition, to become the first and only rower getting three world awards in the three rowing disciplines. Considering this piece as an implicit invitation from World Rowing, Ficarra started to train for a new world competition, the Indoor World Rowing that was planned for February 2023. Among the categories for lightweights the distance of 500 m was also included, and due to the specific anthropometric characteristics of Ficarra's built his coach suggested to exploit his explosive force and compete for the 500 m. Considering the approaching of the winter season and the type of competition Ficarra had to change again the training preparation (Table 5) and nutritional plans as in Table 3A. Qualification for this indoor event followed a blended modality, virtual and in presence, thus Ficarra sent a video of a trial 500m and received news about his qualification a month before the event. The World Rowing Championship was held in Canada, meaning for Ficarra who competed virtually from Italy, that the time of the race would be in the late evening (9:20 p.m.). To be better prepared and adjust his body to the competition, in the last week, his coach gradually moved his training schedule with simulated races to the expected time of the race, this changed again his nutritional plan (Table 3B, Table 5).Table 5 Last week workout before indoor race. From day 1 to day 7 the time of training was progressively postponed from 3 p.m. to 9 p.m. to allow the rower to adjust to the scheduled time of the race (9:20 p.m.).

Table 5	Ergometer	Running	Boat training	Ground workout	Stretching	
Day 1	8km (20 spm) strong pace changing to fast pace (15 strokes) every 1 km				15 min	
Day 2	Pyramid workout as follows:
30 strokes at 36 spm x 4 reps;
40 strokes at 32 spm x 3 reps;
60 strokes at 28 spm x 2 reps; last 100 strokes at 22 spm
Repeat twice with 5 min rest time				15 min	
Day 3		20 minutes		50 minutes	15 min	
Day 4			12 km aerobic training followed by technical exercises		15 min	
Day 5	Quick work as follows:
2 km warm-up;
150 m (36 spm) x 2 reps; 200 m (44 spm) x 2 reps; 350 m (32 spm) x 2 reps
Cool down: 3km (28 spm).				15 min	
Day 6	Simulated pre-race warm-up 30 min as follows:
250 m (40 spm) x 4 reps rest for 5 min
500 m (40 spm) x 2 reps				15 min	
Day 7	6km slowly with some brisk changes to race pace.				15 min	
*spm: stroke per minute, rep: repetition.

Winning the gold medal at the Indoor World Rowing Championship, Ficarra was entitled by the international federation as the Triple Crown being the first rower in the world that won in the three different rowing disciplines.

Conclusion

Unlike heavyweight rowers, the nutrient intake of lightweight rowers appears to be dictated by body mass goals and the attendant need to create an energy deficit to promote weight loss. Consequently, athletes adhere to a low-fat meal plan. However, dietary carbohydrate and protein intake may not be consistent with current sports nutrition guidelines. In order to replenish glycogen to the working muscles during strenuous daily training, an athlete's diet should provide either 60 % of the calories as carbohydrate or 650 g of carbohydrates [11]. The proper distribution of macronutrients should account for a maximum of 15 % of sugars (glucose, saccharose, fructose), 25–27 % of lipids (cheese and olive oil) and 13–15 % of proteins (mainly meat and fish) [12]. Training intensity distribution, commonly accessed by a three-zone model, has been reported to follow a pyramidal distribution, with ∼85 % low intensity training, ∼12 % threshold training, and ∼3 % spent at high intensities and shifts towards a polarized distribution during certain phases of the competition period [[13], [14], [15]].

Thus carbohydrates during long rowing session and a systematic refilling between daily sessions are needed to ensure the maximal performance and avoid hypocaloric conditions. Also, liquid intake is of importance, keeping at a minimum salt consumption to avoid retention but yet providing adequate volumes to restore the fluid deficit after intense training [15].

Lightweight rowers are relatively muscular with very low body fat levels and evidence suggested the negative performance implications of acute weight loss were substantial and should be avoided wherever possible [15]. Despite recommendations to the contrary, lightweight rowers continue to use acute weight loss strategies prior to regattas. Given this, lightweight rowers are a group of athletes who warrant additional attention from a support network of sports science, sports medicine professionals to assist in their body mass management so as to minimize the potential for health and performance implications [16]. The case here reported of a peculiar athlete, Giovanni Ficarra, could be used as an example for all those rowers that are into the three disciplines of this sport. Ficarra started sculling in Olympic boat as a lightweight, gaining his best results in sweep rowing and then had to modify his technique to adjust for Coastal Rowing as single sculler. These changes were also accompanied by a variation in his nutritional habit to gain some weight, plus he changed the settings of his training from a lake to the open sea. As previously demonstrated in another case study [17] dietary interventions in sportsmen can improve muscle mass and performance, but can also change the BMI and biochemical parameters of the athlete providing an overall health benefit.

Since rowing is a sport where resistance is fundamental the production of energy during exercises follows processes that could be aerobic and anaerobic. The training program includes 2 daily sessions of 2–3 hours each for rowing technique and weight lifting, and the ones here described refer to the last week preceding the races. Given the high amount of calories daily consumed by a rower, usually 5000–6000 kcal for heavy weights, and 3000–3500 kcal for lightweights the dietary program needs to be personalized to meet this nutritional requirements. It is important that coaches involve nutritionist for a detailed nutritional schedule to subdivide macronutrients and other dietary supplements in a scientific way, considering that during agonistic season rowers need to implement muscular and aerobic abilities especially in those periods of the year when the big competitions are held. In this context the use of supplements can be also important and partially controversial, in this peculiar case creatine was not advised nor used to avoid any possible weight gain, while minerals were used in cases of intense sweating; rapidly absorbed maltodextrins were taken immediately after specific training sessions; and whey protein or branched-chain amino acids were consumed at the end of each session.

3 Athlete perspective

Based on the peculiar differences in the competition setting, the race distance and the time of the year, the dietary and training adjustments have been of fundamental importance for the rower. As a matter of fact changing training from the 2000 (Olympic rowing) to the 500 m (indoor and coastal) required more explosive than resistance exercises and the dietary adjustment was meant to support this different effort. Also the sprints on the beach require less carbohydrates and more minerals as compared to a normal run. For all the above reasons, in the athlete opinion for those who are involved in top level challenges, the changes in training plans should strictly follow changes in diet and nutritional requirements.

Funding

none.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Giovanni Ficarra: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Carmen Mannucci: Writing – original draft, Methodology. Alessio Franco: Methodology. Alessandra Bitto: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Fabio Trimarchi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Debora Di Mauro: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

Alessandra Bitto reports article publishing charges was provided by SunNutraPharma srl. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

none.
==== Refs
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