
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)13205-7
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37174
e37174
Research Article
Farmers’ traditional knowledge on seasonal frost management and their tree preferences in frost affected highlands of Amhara region, Ethiopia
Mengesha Yeshifana Alemneh alemnehyeshifana@gmail.com
a⁎
Wolle Hailie Shiferaw a
Ayana Demelash Alem a
Belayneh Alayu Haile a
Yewogu Sewale Wondimneh a
Gebremedhin Sintayehu Eshetu a
Worku Amsalu Endalamaw a
Desta Anteneh Yenesew a
Yesufe Abera Tesfaye b
a Ethiopian Forestry Development, Bahir Dar Center, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, P.O. Box 2128
b Ethiopian Forestry Development, Central Ethiopia Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, P.O.Box 30708
⁎ Corresponding author. alemnehyeshifana@gmail.com
30 8 2024
15 9 2024
30 8 2024
10 17 e3717414 12 2023
28 8 2024
28 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
Extreme environmental conditions, such as high temperature, frost, low humidity and desiccating winds, are the main causes for the failure of plantation forests in Ethiopia. Frost damage contributes to the low seedling survival and plantation success in frost affected highlands of Amhara region Ethiopia. Research outputs on farmers' traditional knowledge on frost management and technologies that curb frost related problems are limited in the country. This study was conducted to document the farmers’ traditional knowledge on frost management and their tree preference in frost affected highlands of Amhara region. Sinan, Guna-begemder and Meket districts were selected purposively in 2020. One representative sample Kebele was selected in each district with a total of 204 households selected with systematic random sampling technique for interview. In addition to interview focus group discussion was also conducted. Both descriptive and inferential statistics data analysis method were employed. In this study, frost was found to be an important limiting factor for plantation development in the study area. Frost occurs, mainly, from September to January. The local community applies traditional frost management techniques. The seasonality of frost occurrence and type of traditional frost management practices varied among the studied Kebeles. Eucalyptus globulus, Oldeania alpina, Rhamnus prinoides and Chamaecytisus palmensis were preferred trees species due to their frost resistant performance. The effectiveness of identified traditional frost management techniques needs to be investigated before they can be promoting and disseminating. Farmers should also be trained in proper techniques to protect planted seedlings from frost damage. Adjusting the timing of planting may also help to mitigate the effect of frost damage.

Keywords

Frost management
Plantation forest
Tree species preference
Frost affected area
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pmc1 Introduction

Ethiopia has a diverse biophysical environment, and its land formations fall broadly into highlands and lowlands. A high incidence of deforestation and degradation of vegetation is a severe problem in the highlands of Ethiopia. High population growth, agricultural land expansion and high dependence on biomass energy are the major direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the highland areas of the country [1,2].

The needs of the local community for various tree species are also not available in the country.

Furthermore, extreme environmental conditions, such as high temperature, frost, low humidity and desiccating winds, are the main causes for the failure of plantations forests and natural regeneration in the country [3]. The ability to withstand environmental stresses becomes the limiting factor for tree growing, seedling survival and tree species distribution [4].

Frost is the ice crystals that can coat plants, the ground and other inanimate objects if the temperature is cold enough [5,6]. Frost damage on woody plants is a recurring environmental factor in the alpine Zone [7,8]. Low temperature is a key weather factor that limits the growth of trees and shrubs and seedling survival. It can also be detrimental to tree growth and may cause mortality [9]. Frost damage ranges from minor external damage to branches and buds total to tree mortality [9] by freezing through which most tissues can be suddenly destroyed during a period of plant growth [6,9]. Frost also impacts both external and internal structure and processes of trees.

It is challenging to control frost damage on tree seedlings. But it could be minimized the susceptibility of soils to frost action using different techniques, such as chemicals, to reduce frost heaving on soils. Mulches, shade and soil coating can also use to alter the radiation balance of the soil surface. Moreover planting methods of seedlings, sowing methods, types of container for seedling growth, and the type of tree species used for planting can reduce frost damages on tree seedling [9,10].

Frost damage is one of the major factors for the low survival of seedlings and low plantation success in frost-affected highlands in the Amhara region. Limited research outputs on farmers' traditional knowledge of frost management and technologies useful for curbing frost damage lack in the country. Therefore, this study was aimed to assess and document farmers’ tree needs and their traditional frost management techniques in frost-affected highlands of the region.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study area

The study was conducted in Sinan, Guna-begemidir and Meket districts in the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia (Fig. 1). Sinan district is in South-western part of Amhara Region; about 327 km North-west of Addis Ababa and 292 km South-west of Bahir Dar. Its location extends between 10° 25′ 13″ to 10° 40′ 30″ North latitude and 37° 40′ 00″ to 37° 50′ 20″ East longitude which is generated using quantum GIS of version 3.8. The altitude ranges from 2300 to 4100 m.a.s.l with annual rainfall of 900–1445 mm and the annual temperature of 0–15 °C.Fig. 1 Map of the study area (source: author 2024).

Fig. 1

The areal agroecological proportion is 23 % sub-tropical, 75 % temperate and 2 % cool temperate. The land use constitutes 58.8 % cultivated land, 18.3 % grazing land, 0.5 % forest land, 3.2 % settlement, 5.9 % wet land, and 13.3 % other land uses [11,12]. The farming system of the district is characterized by mixed farming (crop production and livestock rearing). Crops contribute a larger share of the farmers' income. Wheat, barley and potato are major agricultural crops in the district [13].

Guna-begemidir district is found in south Gondar Zone of the Amhara Regional State, about 690 km North of Addis Ababa and 30 km from Debre-tabor town. It extends between 11°42′0″ to 12°5′0″ North latitude and 38°6′30″ to 38°27′0″ East longitude. The district has a total area of 51373.2 ha with altitude range of 1200–4220 m.a.s.l. [14]. The average annual rainfall of the district is 1250 mm with temperature of 9–25 °C [15]. The agro-ecology of the district 46 % sub-tropical, 32 % temperate and 5 % cool temperate. The main livelihood for the local community is subsistence agriculture which includes crop production (barley, wheat, bean, teff, potato, pea and common vetch), as well as livestock rearing (sheep, cattle, donkey and horse). Farmers in the district are largely engaged in planting Eucalyptus globulus Labill and managing woodlots [14,15].

Meket district is found in North Wollo Zone of Amhara National Regional State and located about 600 km north of Addis Ababa. It extends between 11°35′50″ to 12°20′30″ North latitude and 38°32′35″ to 39°16′40″ East longitude. The agro-climatic zone of the district includes sub-tropical, temperate, and cool temperate [16]. The average annual rainfall of the district ranges from 600 to 1000 mm. The topography is characterized by rugged (65 %), plain (28 %), mountainous (4 %) and gorge/valley (3 %). The land use of the district includes cultivated land (43,584ha), grazing land (15,152), perennial woody vegetation's (54,000), settlement (39,528ha), degraded land (11,592ha) and others (23,184ha). The main livelihood for the local people in the district is agriculture, mainly, crop production and animal rearing [17].

2.2 Data collection methods

2.2.1 Sampling techniques

First reconnaissance survey conducted, and discussion was held with Zonal and district officers to get information about frost occurrence and accompanied damage on seedling establishment and its effect on the success of plantation in the region. Multistage sampling technique was employed to select study areas. In the first stage, three districts (Sinan, Guna-Begemder, and Meket) were selected purposefully based on the intensity of frost occurrence and accompanied damage on planted seedlings and plantations. In the second stage, one Kebele from each district was selected. In the third stage, 204 samples were selected randomly from every 20th person on a list of the population in a systematic manner.

The selected Kebeles for the study were Argadidim, Dangule and Akat, respectively, from Guna begemidir, Sinan and Meket districts.

To determine the number of households (HHs) for interview in each Kebele, the total number of HHs was obtained from district offices and Kebeles. In each Kebele, 5 % of the total HHs was selected. A systematic random sampling technique was employed to select Households to administer the questionnaire and to conduct FGD. Finally, a total of 204 HHs (71 from Argadidim, 69 from Akat and 64 from Dangule Kebele) were selected to collect data using questionnaire (Table 1).Table 1 Sampled households.

Table 1No	Kebele	Total number of HHs	Number of samples HHs	
Male	Female	Total	
1	Argadidim	1420	57	14	71	
2	Akat	1380	61	8	69	
3	Dangule	1280	64	0	64	
	Total		182	22	204	
Source: District Agricultural Bureau (2020).

2.2.2 Household survey

Using a semi structured questionnaire, information on the socioeconomic characteristics of the HHs, farmers’ tree species and preferences, main obstacles of planting trees and traditional knowledge of seasonal frost management techniques which are used to increase seedling hardiness and prevent early seedling mortality was gathered. The survey data was conducted in 2020.

2.2.3 Focus group discussion

People with more traditional expertise of managing seasonal frost damage to seedlings and other plants were chosen for the FGD. In every Kebele, two independent FGDs were held, one with male farmers and the other with female farmers. As suggested by Refs. [18,19], 6 to 10 members per a group were used to form a focus group. Participants in the focus group were invited to speak freely and the facilitator led the conversations.

2.3 Data analysis

The HHs interview data were analyzed by a statistical package for social science (SPSS version 26). Focus group discussion data were categorized and narrated. The relationship between response variables and HH socio-economic characteristics, such as age, educational status and landholding size, was also assessed. The ANOVA function of the stats package in R version 4.1.2 [20] was used for analysis of variance and Chi-square tests. Tukey HSD was used to determine significant differences between means (P ≤ 0.05). The study area map is generated using quantum GIS version 3.8 software.

3 Result and discussion

3.1 Household characteristics

In Argadidim, 38 % of the HHs were illiterate, compared to 35 % in Akat and 31 % in Dangule Kebeles. The percentage of people classified as informally educated in Argadidim, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles was around 36.6 %, 24.6 %, and 21.9 %, respectively. In Argadidim, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles, the percentage of HHs who attended secondary schools was 4.2 %, 4.3 %, and 4.7 %, respectively, while the remaining 21.1 %, 34.8 %, and 42.2 % were educated to grade 1–8. At Argadidim, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles, the average family size per HH was 7.0, 6.0, and 6.0, respectively (Table 2). About 0.7 ha is the average landholding size of the study HHs (Table 2) which is below the average land holding size of Amhara region having 1.09 ha.Table 2 Demographic characteristics of the sample HHs.

Table 2Variable	Kebele	
Argadidim	Akat	Dangule	
Sex (%)	
Male	80.3	88.4	100.0	
Female	19.7	11.6	0.0	
Average family size	7.0	6.0	6.0	
Average landholding (ha)	0.6	0.7	0.6	
Educational status (%)	
Illiterate	38.0	35.0	31.0	
Read and write	36.6	24.6	21.9	
Grade1-8	21.1	34.8	42.2	
Grade 9-10	4.2	4.3	4.7	
Social status (%)	
Kebele Administration	4.2		4.7	
Kebele Admin executive	15.5	18.8	6.3	
Religion leader	11.3	18.8	1.6	
Ordinary resident	69.0	62.3	87.4	
Source: field survey result (2020).

3.2 Tree growing and frost knowledge

Planting and managing variety of tree species has been a household practice, mostly for fuelwood and construction purposes. About 87.7 %, 92.8 % and 93.8 % of the HHs, in Argadidim, Akat and Dangule Kebeles, respectively, have been involved in growing trees and they have better understanding about the characteristics of quality seedling. Moreover, HHs in the focus group discussion mentioned a good stem, a fibrous root system, healthy foliage and well-developed buds as seedling quality characteristics. About 40.8 %, 26.1 % and 51.6 % of HHS in Argadidim, Akat and Dangule Kebeles, respectively, had graded seedlings before planting (Table 3).Table 3 Percentage of HHs about tree planting experiences and traditional protection methods for frost damage on tree seedlings in the studied Kebeles.

Table 3	Percent of HH response in the study site	
Argadidim	Akat	Dangule	
Yes (%)	No (%)	Yes (%)	No (%)	Yes (%)	No (%)	
Do you grow trees?	87.7	18.3	92.8	7.2	93.8	6.3	
Do you grade seedlings before planting?	40.8	59.2	26.1	73.9	51.6	48.4	
Do you practice traditional frost management?	42.3	57.7	46.4	53.6	18.75	81.3	
Source: field survey result (2020).

Households believe that seedlings with good stems and health, can resist seasonal frost and perform well in frost occurrence periods. In line with our finding, planted seedling survival is a function of seedling quality [21]. Furthermore, according to other author, there is a favorable association between the height of seedlings at establishing and the increase in survival likelihood [22].

Responses from HHs revealed that the occurrence of seasonal frost is one of the major challenges for seedling survival and plantation success in the study Kebeles. Traditional frost control methods are used by the locals in the study Kebeles to lessen the harm that seasonal frost does to agricultural crops and planted seedlings. Table 3 shows that conventional frost management strategies are used by about 42.3 %, 46.4 %, and 18.8 % of HHs in Argadidim, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles, respectively [6]. also stated that these different management techniques could be used to reduce risks of frost damage in tree seedling survival and growth.

3.3 Sources of seedlings, planting niche and characteristics of tree species required by the community

3.3.1 Households’ source of seedlings

The HHs in the studied Kebeles obtained tree seedlings from different sources such as government nurseries, NGOs, other private nurseries, and their own nurseries. Except for Akat, where the government nursery is the second-largest supplier of tree seedlings in the Kebele, the majority of HHs in each research region acquired their tree seedlings from their own nurseries, followed by those from commercial nurseries (Fig. 2). Contrary to the findings of the present study, it was said that government-run tree nurseries are the nation's primary source of seedlings, followed by privately owned production and other sources [23].Fig. 2 Tree seedling sources of HHs in each studied Kebeles. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 2

Several governmental entities, including higher education institutions, research institutes, farmers training centers, and regional bureaus of agriculture with offices at the zonal and district levels, are among the public sectors that play a role in the seed and seedling system. NGOs are engaged in the manufacture and planting of tree seedlings and have also provided help to the public sector [24].

3.3.2 Tree planting niches

The study revealed that, for planting a tree local community uses different places, such as home gardens, scattered trees on farmlands, boundary planting and other land areas. In line with our findings, other studies reported that the local community in Ethiopia plant tree seedlings as homestead, boundary planting, as scattered trees on farmlands and as woodlots [23]. Trees are planted around homesteads, farm boundaries, along roads and footpaths, inside and along gully sides, and in some cases, larger blocks of trees are grown in formerly cultivated or grazing fields [25].

In Dangule Kebele, home gardens are the most popular niche for planting seedlings as they are close to homes and therefore easier to protect and maintain. About 70.3 % of HHs in Dangule Kebele, 34.8 % in Akat and 46.5 % in Argadidim Kebele preferred the home garden niche for planting trees (Fig. 3). Niche preference is related to tree care and protection as there are challenges associated with open grazing and potential conflicts associated with border planting [,23]. Besides home garden planting, border planting is the most preferred planting niche in the study area. About 53.6 %, 34.4 % and 23.9 % of HHs from Akat, Dangule and Argadidim Kebeles preferred border planting (Fig. 3). In line with our finding [25,26], noted farm boundaries as the dominant and favorite tree planting niches by the local communities. Likewise [[27], [28]], also support that most of the farmers plant trees and shrubs along the boundary of their farms to protect their crops from wind and used for a source of different wood products. Scattered trees on farmland was the least recommended planting niche in this survey. Scattered trees are planted on farmlands by only around 7.0 %, 5.8 %, and 9.4 % of the HHs in Argadidim, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles, respectively.Fig. 3 Seedling planting niche in each study Kebele. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 3

3.3.3 Characteristics of preferred tree species

The study revealed that fast-growing nature, ease of establishment, multipurpose nature, drought resistance and frost resistance were used as criteria for selecting tree seedlings for planting. However, the proportion of HHs who responded to each criterion varied among the studied Kebeles (Fig. 4). In Argadidim and Akat Kebeles, the percentage of HHs who used frost resistant nature of seedlings as seedling selection criteria for planting is low. This could be attributed to lack of awareness about the impact of frost on seedling survival or due to lack of alternative tree species for planting. Except Dangule Kebele the selection of frost tolerant species is less and use mostly fast-growing tree species which even though it needs physical intervention and further investigation may be due to the fast-growing tree can be grown faster and escapes the frost season. In addition to the fast-growing species HHs are dominantly select multipurpose tree since the multipurpose trees have also short term benefits thy give attention to them and even, they protect from frost.Fig. 4 Tree selection criteria in the study Kebeles. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 4

Similarly, other studies such as [29] reported that HHs use fast growth nature, compatibility, multipurpose nature, and drought resistance as criteria to integrate seedlings on their farmland [30]. also argued that farmers have varying needs and preferences for planting different tree species. Moreover, most often farmers prefer species whose silvicultural characteristics are well known, mostly native species [,30].

3.4 Major challenges of tree planting in frost affected highlands of the study area

The HHs in this study mentioned the causes of seedling mortality were frost damage, rodents, drought, inappropriate species site matching, free grazing, inappropriate planting time and inappropriate planting material. In line with the current study [21], stated that seedling survival is a function of seedling quality, species-site matching, proper planting at the right time, seasonal precipitation patterns, and watering in dry seasons.

In Argadidm, Akat, and Dangule Kebeles, frost was identified as the main cause of seedling mortality by approximately 91.5 %, 100.0 %, and 81.3 % of households, respectively (Fig. 5). Conversely, factors such as drought, inappropriate species site match, free grazing, inappropriate planting time, and inappropriate planting materials were considered less significant contributors to seedling mortality in these Kebeles. It is worth noting that drought is a prevalent issue in the alpine Zones of Ethiopia, particularly during the dry season [[31], [32]].Fig. 5 Factors of seedling mortality in the three studied Kebeles. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 5

3.5 Frost susceptible degree under different occurrence season, age and niche

3.5.1 Season of frost occurrence

Tree growers in the study area have good knowledge on the seasons when frost occurs. They mentioned that frost occurs from mid-September to the end of January. Other studies indicated that nocturnal frost in the highlands of Ethiopia is regular in September/October and December/January [32]. Most of the time, frost occurs during the autumn season, starting from the months of October to December and sometimes it extends up to January [33]. Similar to, other findings more than 50 % of HHs indicated that seasonal frost starts from the end of September to the beginning October (Table 4); and the frost that occurs from September to October is less severe than that occurs during December to January.Table 4 Percentage of response on the season of frost occurrence in the three-frost affected Kebeles.

Table 4Months	Starts	Ends	
Argadidim	Akat	Dangule	Argadidim	Akat	Dangule	
September	12.67	21.74	53.12				
October	61.97	75.36	37.5	61.97	76.81	40.62	
November	18.31	7.25	18.75	18.31	5.79	17.19	
December	4.22	62.32	23.43	36.62	62.32	26.56	
End of January				23.94	18.84	23.43	
Source: field survey result (2020).

Other studies stated that, radiative frost which occurs in September to October is less severe as it occurs after the long rains when the relative humidity and dew point temperature are relatively high. While, convective frost that occurs typically in December to January; when the air is dry in northern Ethiopia, the temperatures do not reach the low dew point and the effect of frost on plants is sever [32]. [9] also explained that frost events are most common during the spring and fall seasons in the temperate regions throughout the world.

3.5.2 The impact of frost along the growth stage of plants

This study showed that the impact of seasonal frost on plants varies depending on the stage of growth. Frost affects planted seedlings within the first six months after planting, accordingly around 68.0 %, 56.0 %, and 41.0 % of HHs in Akat, Dangule, and Argadidim Kebeles, respectively (Fig. 6). This might be the result of the seedlings having fewer and smaller leaves as well as immature stems, which made them less resilient to freezing temperatures during frost events. According to Ref. [34], a plant's resistance to frost is extremely poor in its early development stage. There are reports that seedlings are particularly vulnerable to frost damage on their main leaves. As seedlings age, the extent of frost damage reduces, according to the HHs' reactions in every Kebele under study (Fig. 6). Seedlings in this research are damaged by frost up to three years after planting. According to other research, frost that falls in the first year following planting has an impact on tree stability and development [10].Fig. 6 The growth age of seedlings affected by frost in the studied Kebeles. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 6

3.5.3 Frost vulnerable planting niche

Studies indicated that successful tree species establishment is achieved when the proposed planting niche matches with climate and edaphic requirements of a species [35]. To mitigate the effects of frost on seedlings, it is crucial to have knowledge about planting niches that experience cold. This may be achieved by either avoiding planting seedlings in these niches or by managing the frost appropriately. We discovered in our present study that HHs are cognizant of the planting niches in their area that are susceptible to frost.

Similarly, it is reported that plantations in degraded hillsides and agricultural lands are more susceptible to frost damage than plantations in heavy shade areas [10].

The response from the HHs also indciated that less frost damage occurs around homesteads since plantation in these areas are close and receive better management such as mulching, manuring, fencing, and other management practices (Fig. 7). [35] also reported that homestead plantation is a preferred niche for seedling plantation and management because it is more accessible and easily managed by women and the youth.Fig. 7 Percentage of response from HHs on degree of susceptibility of seedling planting niches to frost in the studied Kebeles. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 7

3.6 Traditional frost management techniques

More than half of the HHs in each of the studied Kebeles did not apply any frost management practice on tree seedlings during times of frost. About 59.2 % of HHs at Argadidim, 58.0 % at Akat, and 78.1 % at Dangule Kebeles did not use any of the seasonal frost management techniques on planted tree seedlings. Those who practice use stone or wood fence, mulch, and plant cover to protect planted seedlings from frost (Fig. 8).Fig. 8 Percentage of HHs who apply frost management techniques in each studied Kebele. “mag't” on x-axis mean management. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 8

Other studies also show that different traditional frost management practices, such as top-dressing ground with straw, manure, forest litter, or wooden laths, can be used to reduce frost damage on plants [6,10,35]. [6] reported that plant cover is one of the frost management techniques since it enables the plant rows to be warmer than the clear sky and increase downward long-wave radiation at night, in addition to reducing conventional heat losses to the air.

3.7 Traditional frost management strategies in the studied Kebeles

The response from the HHs revealed that different traditional frost management techniques, such as manuring, watering and chemical fertilizer application, are used to reduce the effect of frost damage on tree seedlings planted in the studied Kebeles. Manuring of planted seedlings was mentioned as a successful frost management technique in the study Kebeles. More than 45.0 % of the HHs in each Kebele used manuring as a frost management technique on planted tree seedlings.

Some of the HHs also uses watering and fertilizer applications to reduce frost damage on planted seedlings. However, a considerable number of HHs in each studied Kebeles did not use any of the frost management techniques (Fig. 9). The HHs mentioned that fertilizer application helps seedlings grow fast and resist frost damage.Fig. 9 Frost management techniques on planted seedlings. Source: field survey result (2020).

Fig. 9

A study by Ref. [6] suggested that when soils are dry, there are more air spaces which inhibit heat transfer and storage. Therefore, in the dry season, watering or irrigation of dry soil is one method of frost management; when the soil is wet well in advance of the frost event, the sun can warm the soil. Irrigation/watering at the beginning of the frost season increases soil moisture content and improves heat and energy absorption. In addition, healthy trees are less susceptible to frost damage, hence, application of fertilization and manure improves plant health and growth. Thus, all traditional frost management strategies reduce the impact of frost on planted seedlings.

3.8 Potential frost-resistant tree species in frost affected area

All the HHs in the study area plant different tree species for various uses and services mainly for fuelwood and construction. A total of 22 plant species were recorded from the entire 204 sample HHs in the study Kebeles. The number and types of tree species varied with Kebeles. The highest number of tree species was recorded at Akat Kebele followed by Argadidim Kebele. The lowest number of species was recorded at Dangule Kebele (Table 5).Table 5 List of potentially suited tree species found in three frost affected Kebeles based on HHs' ranking.

Table 5Scientific name	Local name (Amharic)	Argadidim (n = 71)	Akat (n = 69)	Dangule (n = 64)	
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	Nech bahir zaf	83.09	52.17	96.87	
Oldeania alpina K. Schum.	Kerkeha	73.23	0.00	26.56	
Chamaecytisus palmensis (H.Christ) Hutch.	Meno zaf	29.58	8.69	45.31	
Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit.	Gesho	4.22	4.34	53.12	
Malus domestica Borkh.	Apple	2.81	17.39	17.19	
Acacia decurrens (J. C. Wendl.) Willd	Dekerence Girar	1.41	23.19	7.81	
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel	Koso	8.45	1.45	14.06	
Discopodium penninervum Hochst	Almit	8.45	1.45	0.00	
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl.	Habesha tid	1.41	5.79	0.00	
Buddleja polystachya Fresen	Anfar	0.00	2.89	0.00	
Acacia abysinica Hochst. ex Benth.	Bazira girar	0.00	1.45	0.00	
Schinus molle L	Kundoberbere	0.00	1.45	0.00	
Casuarina equisetifolia L.	Shewushewe	0.00	4.35	0.00	
Allophylus abyssinicus Hochst. Radlk.	Embis	0.00	1.45	0.00	
Olea africana Mill.	Woyira	0.00	1.45	1.56	
Croton macrostachyus Mill.	Bisana	1.41	1.45	0.00	
Cupresus lustanica Mill.	Yeferenji tid	0.00	2.89	0.00	
Rosa abyssinica R.Br. ex Lindl.	kega	0.00	0.00	1.56	
Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.)	wulkefa	0.00	0.00	7.81	
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.	sesbania	0.00	0.00	3.12	
Vernonia myriantha Hook. f.	dengorita	0.00	0.00	7.81	
Erica arborea L.	Asta	0.00	0.00	1.56	
Note:“0” indicates that the tree species is not mentioned in that Kebele. Source: field survey result (2020).

Among the tree species identified in each Kebeles, Eucalyptus globulus Labill was the dominant preferred tree species due to the growing demands for its wood products. HHs considered Eucalyptus as a cash crop. In this regard, 83.09 % of HHs at Arigadidim, 52.17 % at Akat and 96.87 % at Dangule Kebeles plant E. globulus. A study by Ref. [17] confirmed that Eucalyptus trees account for high percentage of the exotic tree species in Meket district because of their ease of management and adaptability, low establishment costs and non-palatability to livestock. Eucalyptus is the most preferred tree species by farmers due to its fast growth and resistance to various environmental factors [25].

Among the tree species identified in each Kebele, E. globulus (83.09 % of the HHs), Oldeania alpina K. Schum. (73.23 %), and Chamaecytisus palmensis (H.Christ) Hutch. (29.58 %) were the top three best-suited tree species in resisting frost damage in Argadidim Kebele (Table 5), whereas, E.globulus (96.87 %), Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit. (53.12 %), and C.palmensis (45.31 %) were the top three best-suited tree species in resisting frost damage in Dangule Kebele. The top three tree species that are most frost resistant in Akat Kebele were E. globules (52.17 %), Acacia decurrens (J. C. Wendl.) Willd (23.19 %) and Malus domestica Borkh. (17.39 %) [23]. also found that E. globulus, R.prinoides, and C. palmensis tree species are the major tree seedlings produced in Sinan district.

3.9 Relations among the different parameters

The time when frost happened differed across the locations studied. Yet, the level of education of the households did not greatly affect their traditional methods of dealing with frost, their knowledge on how to predict the survival of seedlings in their area, or how to evaluate seedlings before planting.

The evaluation of seedlings also did not show a strong relation with frost as a reason for the death of seedlings in their area. The level of education significantly influences the types of frost management techniques used (Table 6). Research by Refs. [34,36] indicates that education is a key factor in spreading new technologies in agriculture and can simplify the adoption of advanced technologies.Table 6 Relationship among the different parameters.

Table 6Variable 1	Variable 2	Chi-squared	df	P-value	
Educational status	Traditional frost management	8.43	10	0.587	
Educational status	Knowhow on seedling survival	13.63	20	0.849	
Educational status	Practice of traditional frost management	8.43	10	0.587	
Kebele	Season of frost occurrence	109.38	28	<0.001***	
Educational status	Seedling grading	8.27	5	0.1419	
Educational status	Type of frost management practiced	142.21,	70	<0.001***	
Seedling grading	Seedling mortality because of frost	0.17	1	0.6794	
Note: (*) represents p-value is less than 0.05, (***) represents p-value is less than 0.0001.

Source: field survey result (2020).

Tree-growing experience was affected by family size, traditional frost management practices and type of frost management (Table 7). In line with this [26], explained that family size had a great influence on tree planting and growing in the highlands of Ethiopia. Also [37], explained that households with large family sizes are willing to adopt different practices due to the high availability of labor.Table 7 Factors affecting seedling planting and frost management in the study areas.

Table 7Factors affecting tree growing experience	
	Estimate	Std. Error	t value	Pr(>|t|)	
District	−0.2038575	0.0608889	−3.348	0.000987 ***	
Family size	−0.0380682	0.0102202	−3.725	0.000260 ***	
Traditional frost mag. practice	0.1073546	0.0439414	2.443	0.015505 *	
Type of frost mgt.	0.0131072	0.0056042	2.339	0.020419 *	
Factors affecting practice of traditional frost management	
	Estimate	Std. Error	t value	Pr (>|t|)	
District	0.244786	0.113603	2.155	0.032481 *	
Tree growing experience	0.292678	0.119796	2.443	0.015505 *	
Factors affecting seedling grading	
	Estimate	Std. Error	t value	Pr (>|t|)	
HH social status	−0.073453	0.032893	−2.233	0.0267*	
Tree growing experience	0.227602	0.124438	1.829	0.0690	
Note: (*) represents p-value is less than 0.05, (***) represents p-value is less than 0.0001.

Source: field survey result (2020).

Conversely, the implementation of conventional frost management techniques differed across districts. Likewise, the traditional approach to frost management varied based on the level of experience in tree cultivation. Moreover, the social status of households played a role in determining whether farmers graded seedlings prior to planting. Tree cultivation experience was also a factor in farmers' decision to grade seedlings before planting (Table 7).

4 Conclusion and recommendation

Frost has a negative impact on the growth and distribution of tree seedlings in the study area. It occurs mainly between September to January in every year. Although the use of traditional frost management practice (mulch, plant cover and stone/wood fence) and its implementation have been varied among each Kebeles, though the local communities have been adopting different traditional frost management techniques in each Kebele.

The local community has been planting and managing different tree species for various uses and services mainly for fuelwood and construction purpose. Government nurseries, other private nurseries and their own nurseries are the most important sources of seedlings in the study area. For seedling planting, they have chosen different planting niches such as home gardens, degraded hill sides, grazing land and agricultural lands.

Eucalyptus globulus, Oldeania alpina, Rhamnus prinoides and Chamaecytisus palmensis are the top four mentioned as frost resistant tree species in the study area. In addition, frost resistance, provision of multiple uses, easy of establishment and fast-growing tree nature characteristics are the most preferred one. However, inappropriate species site match, inappropriate planting time, inappropriate planting material, free grazing, frost and drought have been identified as a major challenge for tree growth in the study areas.

The local community should be trained and encouraged to apply their traditional knowledge and acquired skills to planted seedling in frost affected areas. Moreover, knowledge on timing and duration of frost is important to adjust seedling planting time in the study Kebeles. Developing a brief calendar on seasonality of frost occurrence and creating awareness to HHs are important in areas where frost damage on tree seedlings is a major challenge.

The findings of this research can help for policymakers to understand the unique requirements and difficulties associated with planting trees in regions that have experienced frost. Further research to investigate different frost management techniques and species screening for frost affected areas is required.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on a reasonable request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yeshifana Alemneh Mengesha: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Hailie Shiferaw Wolle: Writing – original draft, Validation, Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Demelash Alem Ayana: Writing – original draft, Validation, Software, Formal analysis. Alayu Haile Belayneh: Writing – original draft, Validation, Data curation. Sewale Wondimneh Yewogu: Writing – original draft, Validation. Sintayehu Eshetu Gebremedhin: Writing – original draft, Validation, Data curation. Amsalu Endalamaw Worku: Data curation. Anteneh Yenesew Desta: Data curation. Abera Tesfaye Yesufe: Methodology, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Yeshifana Alemneh Mengesha reports was provided by Ethiopian Forestry Development. Yeshifana Alemneh Mengesha reports a relationship with Ethiopian Forestry Development that includes: employment. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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