
==== Front
Sci Rep
Sci Rep
Scientific Reports
2045-2322
Nature Publishing Group UK London

72251
10.1038/s41598-024-72251-z
Article
The effect of sports expertise on the performance of orienteering athletes’ real scene image recognition and their visual search characteristics
Guo Limin
Liu Yang liuyang0330@snnu.edu.cn

Kan Chao kanchao@snnu.edu.cn

grid.412498.2 0000 0004 1759 8395 Institute of Physical Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi China
14 9 2024
14 9 2024
2024
14 2149830 1 2024
5 9 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
As a sport conducted in dynamically changing natural environments, orienteering places high demands on athletes' cognitive processing abilities and visual search efficiency. However, previous studies on orienteering have been primarily limited by the use of fixed stimulus materials on computer screens, which are unable to fully simulate authentic sports scenarios. To better understand the sports expertise of orienteering athletes in terms of their real scene image recognition performance and visual search characteristics, this study recruited 40 orienteering athletes, both experts and novices, as participants. By utilizing eye-tracking technology and setting observation points in real-world scenarios to conduct image recognition task tests, the ecological validity of the experiment was further enhanced. The results showed that the experts demonstrated a high level of accuracy and a short response time, with visual search characteristics including few saccade counts, low fixation frequency, concentrated fixation points, simple and clear fixation paths, and higher visual search efficiency. This study further reveals that long-term specialized training will lead to the formation of a unique cognitive structure related to the specific knowledge and long-term memory required by expert orienteering athletes, thereby promoting the development of expert advantage.

Keywords

Orienteering
Visual search
Image recognition
Athletic expertise
Subject terms

Attention
Consciousness
Problem solving
Human behaviour
Humanities and Social Sciences Programme, Ministry of Education23YJAH087 Liu Yang Shaanxi Normal University High-level Achievement Cultivation Programme2022BA002 Liu Yang issue-copyright-statement© Springer Nature Limited 2024
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pmcIntroduction

A “real scene” can refer to the overall image of the external world as obtained by an individual through their perceptual system1. Recognizing different real scene images is crucial for human communication, decision-making, and behavior2. In orienteering, image recognition refers to the cognitive process of matching map symbol information with actual tangible object information3.The information processing theory suggests that the first step of cognitive processing is the input of external visual information4,5. Therefore, in orienteering competitions, athletes must first extract key information from complex competition environments through their visual systems6 and process it to make reasonable judgments7 and to determine checkpoint locations8. It is thus evident that an athlete’s ability to process relevant information through visual search directly affects their performance.Visual search refers to the process in which an individual performs a series of eye movements while seeking specific information or goals9. Recording eye movement indicators of athletes in competition, while also analyzing their visual search patterns and strategies, can help us understand how expert athletes process information and the processing mechanisms which may exist10.For example, Negi and Mitra suggest that fixation is one of the basic modes of eye movement. Individuals faced with complicated information often need more and lengthier fixation times to analyze and understand the information deeply11. Saccade distance refers to the visual range covered by the participants from one fixation point to the next. Experts in a particular field are more able to predict the positioning of and select information points presented in a scene, exhibiting the characteristic of shorter saccade distances12. Numerous studies have used visual search tasks to explore differences in the visual information processing of athletes of different abilities, and have used such tasks as a reference for developing more targeted athlete training13,14. Research shows that, in image recognition tasks, high-level athletes exhibit an expert advantage in their ability to collect visual information15. Expert athletes are highly sensitive to information relevant to their field of expertise, and tend to possess higher-developed search strategies and capabilities specific to their field16. The information-reduction hypothesis suggests that, when faced with a complex task, experts are able to strategically allocate their attention resources to optimize the effort invested in information processing, focusing on stimuli directly related to the current task while effectively ignoring irrelevant stimuli, resulting in reduced cognitive load17. They tend to demonstrate behavioral performance characteristics such as high accuracy rate and short response time; as well as visual search characteristics such as fewer fixation times, higher concentration of fixation points, and small saccade distances18. This demonstrates that compared to the novices, expert athletes excel in both cognitive processing capabilities and visual search efficiency19. Combining the research by Zhang and Qi, it is believed that due to long-term specialized training, information structures related to athletic expertise tend to be stored as memory representations in the long-term memory of expert athletes20. This facilitates rapid recall or matching of information in real-world settings; enhancing the visual information processing efficiency of expert orienteering athletes; and thereby promoting the development of their expertise21.

In summary, numerous studies have analyzed the visual search performance of expert and novice athletes. However, previous research has predominantly relied on traditional image stimuli, and it remains unclear whether athletes exhibit the same visual search performance in realistic competitive scenarios. Moreover, information from three-dimensional space serves as a crucial cue for the visual system in real-world environments22. By conducting situational recognition research based on realistic scenarios, we can yield more accurate results reflecting athletes' information processing and cognitive processes during actual sports, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the research23. To this end, the current study expands the research context to incorporate observation tasks within real-world orienteering scenarios, with the objective of exploring the attention allocation and visual search characteristics of orienteers with varying skill levels.The following hypotheses are proposed: compared to the novices athletes, experts are able to selectively allocate their attention resources to stimuli pertinent to their task, and can extract and use key information more effectively within a limited period of time, significantly improving both the accuracy of their decision-making and response speed. During the process of visual searching, their saccade counts is fewer, the saccade frequency is lower, the fixation point is concentrated, the fixation path is simple and clear, and their visual search efficiency is higher.

Materials and methods

Participants

G*Power 3.1 was used to calculate the sample size required for this experiment24, with a statistical power of 1 − β = 0.95 and an effect size Cohen’s f = 0.5. Using independent sample t-test as a statistical method, it was determined that a minimum of 39 participants were required. In total, 20 expert (13 males, aged 21.03 ± 2.30 years old; 7 females, 20.21 ± 1.82 years old) and 20 novice (11 males, age 19.15 ± 1.41 years old; 9 females, 19.43 ± 0.83 years old) orienteering athletes were recruited for this study. Referring to guidance on defining athlete expertise25, An orienteering athlete was considered to be an expert for the purposes of this study if they had a continuous training period of 6.07 ± 1.03 years, with a training frequency of three to five times per week. Furthermore, an expert athlete in this study had participated in the World Orienteering Championship, the World Cup, or other large-scale orienteering events a minimum of 20 times. An athlete was considered to be a novice if they were a member of the orienteering school team of Shaanxi Normal University, had been learning orienteering for more than two years, had a training frequency of two to three times per week, and had not yet participated in any large-scale events.

All participants in this study had not participated previously in any similar studies, and all had normal or corrected-to-normal binocular vision and were right-handed. Before beginning the experiment, all participants completed a basic demographic questionnaire (i.e., gender, age, training frequency, years of continuous training, and number of competitions participated in), and all signed an informed consent form. After completing the experiment, all participants received a token remuneration in gratitude. In addition, all methods used in this study were conducted by the relevant guidelines and regulations, in compliance with the relevant requirements of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shaanxi Normal University (Approval number: SNNU20233011).

Measuring instruments

The HC-210 directional professional timing and punching system was used to record the accurate rates and responses of the participants. Eye movement data was collected using the German SMI eyeglasses eye-tracker, model ETG2w, to record the eye movement index of participants as they processed visual information during the picture recognition task. The eye-tracker used a sampling frequency of 60 Hz (both eyes), with a tracking resolution of < 0.1°, staring accuracy of 0.5°, and a tracking distance of more than 40 cm. The tracking range was 80° horizontally and 60° vertically.

Experimental design and materials

A single-factor experimental design was used for this experiment. The dependent variables were the participants’ behavioral indicators (i.e., correct rate, reaction time) during the picture recognition task, as well as the eye movement indicators (i.e., fixation time and fixation number) on the different areas of the picture or the real scene. As shown in Fig. 1, five interference points and one correct point were positioned and mapped in the scene presented in the experiment, as well as in the orienteering map made of the experimental scene, which included a checkpoint legend and a marker identifying north.Fig. 1 Example of experiment stimulus materials.

The scenes used in the experiment were real scenes of a specific park, and the orienteering maps of the experiment scene were made collaboratively by three national orienteering cartographers. In the preliminary preparation stage, a total of 70 orienteering maps were made of corresponding scenes. After field investigation and selection, five of the orienteering maps were chosen for the practice scenes, and another 15 were chosen for the formal test scenes, all chosen under the condition that no map interfered with any other used in the test. Figure 1 presents an example of a map developed for this study.

Division of interest regions and selection of eye movement index

To explore participants’ fixation characteristics on the real scene, the test scene was divided into two parts following input from coaches of the national orienteering team: the orienteering map area and the real scene area. To understand participants’ fixation on characteristics of the different information areas of the orienteering map, the map was further divided into three sections (i.e., the main area of the map, the checkpoint description table area, and the north marker area) as was the real scene area (i.e., correct points, interference points, and other areas). Figure 2 shows the specific divisions of each area.Fig. 2 Example of division of interest areas of an experimental scene.

Wang26 and Yan27 have proposed definitions of various eye movement indicators for use in studies on focus and attention:

Overall eye movement indicators: (1) Saccade counts refers to the number of times that a subject’s eyes move rapidly from one fixation point to another in the visual search task,; the higher the saccade counts, the more time spent by the subject searching for key information. (2) Saccade frequency refers to the number of saccades per unit of time, reflecting the speed of the subject’s visual search; higher saccade frequency reflects difficulty in information processing. (3) Fixation frequency refers to the number of fixation performed by the subject per unit of time, reflecting the attention paid to the search target and the subject’s depth of cognitive processing.

Eye movement indicators of each area of interest: (1) Fixation time refers to the length of time that the subject stays focused on a specific area or target, reflecting the subject’s speed of information processing and their depth of cognitive processing. (2) Fixation counts refer to the number of fixation points on a specific area or target, reflecting the attention given to the search target by the subject, and the effectiveness of their search strategy.

Visual indicators: (1) The fixation hotspot map can visually demonstrate the subject’s distribution of attention and their points of interest. (2) The fixation trajectory diagram can reveal the search order and path of the participants.

In this study, the saccade counts, saccade frequency, and fixation frequency were selected for use in the image recognition task to investigate the visual search efficiency of orienteers. Saccade counts and saccade frequency focus on the dynamic activities of a subject in their search process, reflecting the breadth and speed of their search. Fixation frequency focuses on the static attention and processing of specific information. Meanwhile, fixation time and fixation counts provide general information about the subject’s information processing and target of focus, while fixation hotspot map and fixation trajectory map provide more detailed information regarding intuitive visual search paths and strategies. Therefore, fixation time, fixation frequency, fixation hotspot map and fixation trajectory map were also used in the image recognition task in this study to explore the visual search patterns of orienteering athletes.

Procedure and experimental tasks

The experimental test consisted of two phases: a practice phase (5 scenarios) and a formal test phase (15 scenarios). Participants were asked to identify the location of the checkpoint on the map by observing the real scene from different angles. The task required participants to carefully observe the point positions on the map as well as the scene information in the real scene, before quickly selecting the real point positions in the scene in line with the map checkpoint. Participants were told to make their selections as quickly as possible while also ensuring the correctness of their response.

Before the practice phase began, the researcher explained the experiment procedure to the participant, as well as noting precautions taken in the experiment. In the practice stage, after the participant had made a choice, the researcher informed them whether their answer was correct, as well as how quickly they should respond. The purpose of the practice stage was to give the participants the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the experiment procedure. After the practice tests were completed, the formal test phase began.

Before beginning the formal experiment, the eye tracker was calibrated in relation to the participant’s position to ensure the data collection requirements were met. The procedure of the formal test phase were the same as the practice phase, except that in the test phase the participants did not receive feedback regarding their responses. Each trial began with the researcher giving a command, at which point the participant held up an electronic card punch to start the timer as the experimenter started the eye tracker to collect the eye movement data. When the participant had made their choice, the timer was stopped. Figure 3 presents the experimental process.Fig. 3 Experimental flowchart.

Data analysis

After the tests were completed, BeGaze analysis software was used to analyze the eye movement data collected by the eye tracker. SPSS 26.0 software was used to test the homogeneity of the sorted data. When p > 0 0.05, an independent sample t-test was used for statistical analysis of behavioral performance and overall eye movement indicators, and repeated measurement ANOVA were used for statistical analysis of the eye movement indicators for each area of interest. The Greenhouse–Geisser method was used to correct the p-values, and the analysis results were statistically significant when p < 0.05.

Results

Behavioral performance results

An independent sample t-test was used to analyze the behavioral performance of each of the two participant groups in the image recognition task, and the results are shown in Fig. 4. Descriptive statistics results are presented in Table 1.Fig. 4 Results of behavioral performance of orientation athletes’ in the image recognition task (*** represents p < 0.001; * represents p < 0 0.05).

Table 1 List of behavioral results of orientation athletes’ in the image recognition task (M ± SD).

Group	Experts	Novices	
Correct rate (%)	0.67 ± 0.06	0.52 ± 0.05	
Response time (ms)	13,103.57 ± 2114.25	14,986.88 ± 2394.36	

The results showed that the accuracy rate of the expert group in the picture recognition task was significantly higher than that of the novice group, t(38) = 8.580, p = 0.000 < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.71. The experts’ response rate was significantly lower than that of the novice group, t(38) = − 2.637, p = 0.012 < 0.05, Cohen’s d = 0.83. In other words, experts demonstrate behavioral performance characteristics of high accuracy and short reaction time.

Overall eye movement results

The independent sample t-test was used to analyze the overall eye movement indicators of the two groups of participants in the image recognition task, and the results are shown in Fig. 5. Descriptive statistics results are presented in Table 2.Fig. 5 Overall eye movement results of the image recognition task.

Table 2 List of overall eye movement results of orientation athletes’ in the image recognition task (M ± SD).

Group	Experts	Novices	
Fixation frequency	2.11 ± 0.29	2.87 ± 0.44	
Saccade frequency	1.96 ± 0.35	2.08 ± 0.46	
Saccade counts	25.49 ± 5.11	31.19 ± 8.51	

The results showed that the saccade counts t(38) = − 2.566, p = 0.015 < 0.05, Cohen’s d = − 2.02, and the fixation frequency t(38) =  − 6.384, p = 0.000 < 0.001, Cohen’s d = − 0.81, were all significantly lower than in the novice group. The saccade frequency t(38) = − 5.235, p = 0.015 < 0.001, Cohen’s d = − 3.00, not statistically significant.

Results of map image areas of interest

Repeated measures variance was used to analyze the results of each of the two athlete groups regarding participants’ fixation on the map areas of interest in the picture recognition task, and the results are shown in Fig. 6. Descriptive statistics results are presented in Table 3.Fig. 6 Fixation time and count results for the areas of interest on the map (*** represents p < 0.001).

Table 3 List of fixation time and count results on areas of interest on the map of orientation athletes’ in the image recognition task (M ± SD).

Group	Experts	Novices	
Fixation time	Fixation count	Fixation time	Fixation count	
The main area of the map	2435.33 ± 740.17	10.42 ± 3.40	2663.34 ± 376.22	11.30 ± 1.40	
The checkpoint description table	668.74 ± 139.07	3.40 ± 0.62	532.08 ± 64.51	1.84 ± 0.47	
The north marker area	273.10 ± 32.40	1.25 ± 0.24	305.12 ± 31.00	1.14 ± 0.41	

(1) Fixation time

The results showed that the main effect of the group on fixation time on the map areas of interest was not significant [F (2, 37) = 0.386, p = 0.538 > 0 0.05, η2 = 0.010], the main effect of the area of interest was significant [F(2, 37) = 348.633, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.950], and the interaction effect of group × area of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 14.601, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.441]. Further simple effect analysis showed that the fixation time of the experts on the checkpoint description table area was significantly higher than that of the novices [F (2,37) = 15.892, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.295], while the the fixation time of experts on the north marker area was significantly lower than that of the novices [F (2, 37) = 10.207, p = 0.003 < 0.01, η2 = 0.212]. The fixation time of the experts [F (2, 37) = 198.422, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.915] and that of the novices [F (2, 37) = 164.812, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.899] on the map areas of interest, from longest to shortest,was the main area of the map, the checkpoint description table area, and the north marker area.

(2) Fixation count

The main effect of the group on the fixation count on map areas of interest was not significant [F (2, 37) = 0.727, p = 0.399 > 0.05, η2 = 0.019], the main effect of area of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 303.034, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.942], and the interaction effect of group × area of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 30.858, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.62]. Further simple effect analysis showed that the fixation count of the experts on the checkpoint description table area was significantly higher than that of the novices [F (2, 37) = 79.445, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.676]. The fixation count of the experts [F (2, 37) = 181.430, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.907] and the novices [F (2, 37) = 152.462, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.892] in the area of interest on the map, from most to least, was the main area of the map, the checkpoint description table area, and the north marker area.

Results of the real scene areas of interest

Repeated measures variance was used to analyze the results of each of the two athlete groups regarding participants’ fixation on the real scene areas of interest in the image recognition task, and the results are shown in Fig. 7. Descriptive statistics results are presented in Table 4.Fig. 7 Fixation time and count results on areas of interest on real scene (***represents p < 0.001; *represents p < 0.05).

Table 4 List of fixation time and count results on areas of interest on real scene of orientation athletes’ in the image recognition task (M ± SD).

Group	Experts	Novices	
Fixation time	Fixation count	Fixation time	Fixation count	
The correct area	890.15 ± 91.80	3.76 ± 0.37	598.04 ± 79.41	2.35 ± 0.66	
The Interference area	857.05 ± 193.12	3.45 ± 0.72	1010.63 ± 205.36	5.19 ± 0.85	
The invalid area	826.37 ± 130.70	3.69 ± 0.56	1551.57 ± 346.65	7.35 ± 1.41	

(1) Fixation time

The main effect of the group on the fixation time on the real scene areas of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 34.479, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.476], the area of interest main effect was significant [F (2, 37) = 50.157, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.731], and the group × area of interest interaction effect was significant [F (2, 37) = 65.882, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.781]. Further simple effect analysis showed that the fixation time of the experts on the correct region was significantly higher than that of the novices [F (2, 37) = 115.833, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.753], while it was significantly lower than that of the novices on the interference area [F (2, 37) = 5.936, p = 0.020 < 0.05, η2 = 0.135] and the invalid area [F (2, 37) = 76.637, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.669]. There was no statistical significance on the fixation time of the experts on each area of interest, while the fixation time of the novices on the real areas of interest [F (2, 37) = 115.500, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.862], from longest to shortest, was the invalid area, the interference area, and the correct area.

(2) Fixation count

The results showed that the main effect of the group on fixation count on the real scene areas of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 59.217, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.609], the main effect of area of interest was significant [F (2, 37) = 104.854, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.850], and the group × area of interest interaction effect was significant [F (2, 37) = 126.837, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.873]. Further simple effect analysis showed that the experts had significantly higher fixation count on the correct region than the novices [F (2, 37) = 69.926, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.648], while the fixation count on the interference area [F (2, 37) = 48.876, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.563] and invalid area [F (2, 37) = 117.307, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.755] were significantly lower than those of the novices. There was no statistical significance seen in the results of the fixation count of the experts on each area of interest, while for novices [F (2, 37) = 230.245, p = 0.000 < 0.001, η2 = 0.926], the fixation count on the real scene areas of interest, from most to least, was the invalid area, the interference area, and the correct area.

Fixation hotspot map

Participants’ fixation time and attention distribution to the different areas of the test scenes can be visually represented by a fixation hotspot map, in which different colors represent the participant’s attention to each area, and the redder the color, the higher the level of attention paid to that area28.

As Fig. 8 shows, there are some differences between the two groups regarding the focus spots in the scene recognition task. The experts focused more attention on spots with the more intense, redder color scheme, demonstrating more effective focus on the information in the checkpoint description table and the corresponding points in the real scene, paying more attention to the checkpoint description table than the novices did. Meanwhile, the novices was less likely to observe areas of interest such as checkpoints, and did not seem to notice the information in the checkpoint description table. In the real scene, the fixation points shown in the novice hotspot map are scattered, with more attention paid to observing ground objects located around the checkpoint than to the inspection points.Fig. 8 Examples of hotspot maps drawn from of orienteer picture recognition task data.

Fixation trajectory diagram

The line between fixation points is referred to as the fixation trajectory, and this line follows the order of fixation on the various fixation points. The fixation trajectory chart can reflect a participant’s eye movement during data information, and reveal their order of observation of each area during a test. In the current study task, the participant’s first 10 fixation points and the fixation trajectories were tracked and analyzed. As Fig. 9 shows.Fig. 9 Example of fixation track diagrams showing the first 10 fixation points.

The Fig. 9 shows that each group had different fixation trajectories in the image recognition task. Of the experts, 87% of participants first fixated on the checkpoint marked on the map, and their fixation remained on the orientation map for a certain amount of time, after which they tended to then observe the target point located in the real scene. In contrast, 79% of the novices did not first pay attention to the information provided in the checkpoint description table, but rather distributed their fixations across other irrelevant locations, while the fixation points in the real scene were distributed evenly across all points.

Discussion

By analyzing the visual search patterns and behavioral performance characteristics of orienteering athletes at either expert or novice levels, the visual search characteristics of expert athletes were identified and summarized in this study, which can provide more specialized training guidance for beginners in orienteering, as well as a theoretical basis for developing and teaching orienteering courses.

Performance analysis of orienteering athletes’ picture recognition

In the task of picture recognition, the experts demonstrated the characteristics of high accuracy and short reaction time, which indicates that their visual search mode is more focused and their visual information processing more effective. In orienteering competitions, athletes must allocate a large amount of visual attention to relevant areas of interest, perceive and integrate complex information within the given environment, and make reasonable use of their own knowledge and experience of the sport29. The experience advantage hypothesis posits that experts, having undergone years of training, possess a richer sports experience compared to novices30, and are more resourceful in connecting relevant information with their extensive experience31, combining their existing knowledge and their on-the-spot experience to better adapt to an ever-changing competitive landscape. Information processing theory suggests that experts carefully organize and optimize the structure and pattern of knowledge in their memory system32, enabling them to efficiently match field information with their systematic long-term memory33,34. Top-down information processing35 helps these more skillful athletes identify effective clues such as distinct landmarks like corners and buildings, allowing them to adapt their attention strategies to the demands of a given scene and swiftly identify crucial information36. In contrast, novices lack not only sports experience but also a comprehensive tactical schema in their long-term memory that guides decision-making.This hinders their ability to focus on key information, leading them to expend more time and energy processing irrelevant details and thereby increasing their cognitive load37, and thus decreasing their behavioral performance. The novices therefore demonstrate the visual search characteristics of low accuracy and long reaction time.

Analysis results of orienteer athletes’ visual search efficiency in picture recognition

Visual search efficiency refers to an individual's search speed and accuracy when looking for a specific target38. During competitions, orienteering athletes must search for and process key information within a dynamic landscape through a series of eye movements, and a high level of visual search efficiency will improve their athlete’s sports performance39. In the realistic scene image recognition task used in this study, the visual behavior of experts had the characteristics of fewer saccade counts, and lower fixation frequency, all contributing to to allow them to identify, process, and judge key information quickly, resulting in a higher level of visual search efficiency. According to long-term working memory theory, information processing occurs as information is directly input through the sensory system and then stored in long-term memory, becoming empirical knowledge40. In the current study, the experts demonstrated a stronger ability in global analysis, as their memory retrieval system allowed for more rapid encoding of information perceived during the picture recognition task in their long-term memory41, laying a foundation for the localization and recognition of relevant information. Through deliberate practice, orienteering athletes are able to master map recognition, directional judgment, and route planning skills, enabling them to perceive and comprehend a dynamic scene more quickly and accurately. This helps them both ignore unrelated information and pay attention to the relevant task information42, optimizing the amount of information they can process and allowing them to achieve higher visual search efficiency. These findings reinforce the importance of deliberate practice in training, while confirming the benefits of long-term specialized training and providing strong support for holistic athletic development. The novices lack professional knowledge and sports experience. Their underdeveloped sport-related knowledge structure in their long-term memory system and less-trained cognitive abilities such as perception, attention allocation, or memory43 lead to greater challenges in processing and extracting information from maps and real scenes. As such, they use more attention resources to process map information, and take longer to disregard irrelevant information in real scenes44, exhibited by a higher saccade count, higher saccade frequency, and higher fixation frequency, which resulting in a lower level of visual search efficiency.

Analysis of visual search patterns in orienteering athletes’ image recognition skills

A visual search pattern refers to the strategies and ways that athletes search for key information in a given sports scene45. Studies have shown that differences in visual search patterns are an important factor in the differences observed in the behavioral performance and visual search efficiency of orienteering athletes of different skill levels46. The results of the current study showed that, in terms of areas of interest in the images, the experts and the novices both paid the most attention to the information in the main map area of interest, followed by the information in the checkpoint description table. In terms of the checkpoint description table area, the experts’ fixation counts and fixation time were significantly higher than those of the novice group, while in terms of the north marker area, the expert group’s fixation time was significantly lower than those novices. For orienteering athletes, the ability to recognize map information and identify corresponding objects and markers in the related scene is extremely important, as the ultimate purpose of using maps for navigation—even in daily life—is to determine the best route of travel47. As a key tool in orienteering, the main area of the orienteering map is the primary information source for athletes, and the checkpoint description table should provide more accurate description of the positional relationships between the checkpoints identified on the map and the real scene checkpoint features48. The athletes must therefore focus their time and energy to obtain this relevant information from both the map’s main area and the checkpoint description table area. Through long-term specialized training, the experts in this study have formed a professional cognitive processing model in their minds, accompanied by a fine-tuned visual search strategy, allowing them to allocate minimal attention resources to match key information with their existing orienteering-related cognitive templates. In contrast, the novices demonstrated a lower level of specialized cognition, and finding it difficult to direct their attention to the key information amidst a large amount of distracting visual information49, which required that they invest more attention resources into assessing the orientation of the map by seeking out the north-pointing symbol.

In terms of the real scene areas of interest, the experts’ fixation counts and fixation time on the correct points were significantly higher than those of the novices, while their fixation counts and fixation time focused on the interference point and invalid areas were significantly lower than those of the novices. However, the novices paid more attention to the invalid area of interest, followed by the interference point and finally the correct point area of interest. Cognitive load theory50 suggests that the athletes in the expert group have a stronger ability for pattern recognition and representation, as well as highly organized and structured knowledge and specialized skills which tend to be automated, thus they are able to process information quickly and accurately in all stages of information processing51. In the image recognition task, the experts were able to retrieve the corresponding pair of knowledge structures from their long-term memory to meet the task requirements, helping them quickly locate the correct location in the scene. However, due to their lack of relevant knowledge and experience, the novices found it difficult to associate the knowledge structure they hold in their minds with the dynamic orienteering real scenes. When presented with further interference such as irrelevant information, they needed to invest even more psychological resources to process it. Therefore, their fixation time and fixation counts for the incorrect and interference areas were significantly higher than those for the correct areas.

Analysis of the fixation hotspots and fixation tracks of the orienteering athletes during the image recognition task shows that the fixation points of the novices are relatively chaotic, and that their observation of areas of interest such as the checkpoints or corresponding points in the real scene were relatively few, failing to form an effective visual search strategy. The cognitive load theory holds that experts are able to encode and retrieve information from their long-term memory faster52, and that they are better at the selective allocation of attention. Furthermore, the guidance of their previous experience or prior knowledge systematically guides experts’ attention to the relevant areas of interest53, resulting in a more concentrated fixation point hotspot, mostly located on the checkpoint description table and the corresponding points in the real scene. Experts' focus on areas of interest such as the checkpoint description table was higher than that of the novices. Furthermore, as shown in the fixation trajectory diagram, the experts’ visual search strategy was seen to be more efficient, adopting a visual search sequence that goes from checkpoint description table to the main area of the map to the real scene area. The combined results of the fixation hotspot map and the fixation trajectory diagram demonstrate that the experts adopted a visual search and cognitive processing strategy of “effective search—processing of information—memory extraction—quick judgment”54. A visual search mode of “concentration of fixation—low frequency of fixation—direct and clear fixation path” or what could be termed “goal-oriented” this mode was displayed55. However, the novices’ visual search strategy was not efficient, nor did they gather relevant information in the short time period due to the novices’ limited specialized cognitive skills56. The novices’ eye movement characteristics can be described as “long fixation time—more fixation times—complex fixation path.”

The findings of this research suggest the benefit of combining sports training with spatial perception training. By implementing intentional, specialized training for athletes, they adopt more effective visual search modes when processing and interpreting spatial information. Thereby, this training helps to improve their picture recognition ability as well as their overall sports performance.

Limitations and future research

The combination of eye movement technology and realistic scenes provides an experimental paradigm and theoretical basis for further enriching and improving cognitive psychology research in the field of sports. Behavioral and eye movement indicators help us understand the cognitive processing characteristics of orienteering athletes during picture recognition. However, the neural activities and cognitive processes underlying these behaviors still need to be explored. In the future, eye movement technology can be combined with EEG, fNIRS, or other brain imaging technologies to further investigate how athletes process visual information.

Conclusions

This study used eye-tracking technology and set up an image recognition task in a real scene to explore the behavioral performance and visual search characteristics of athletes with different levels of orientation skills. Due to the specialized, systematic knowledge structures ingrained in their long-term memory, the experts were better able to retrieve and use pre-existing information to complete the picture recognition task. They adopted a "goal-oriented" visual search strategy of "effective search—information processing—memory extraction—quick judgment," exhibiting visual search characteristics of "concentrated fixation, low fixation frequency, and fewer saccades."

Acknowledgements

L.M.G. Wrote the method and results section of the manuscript and performed the data collection, manipulation, and analysis. C.K. wrote the abstract and discussion of the manuscript and revised the manuscript, and is the primary corresponding author. All of the authors reviewed the manuscript. Y. L. made suggestions for the study, prepared all figures and tables, and is the other corresponding author.

Author contributions

L.M.G. Wrote the method and results section of the manuscript and performed the data collection, manipulation, and analysis. C.K. wrote the abstract and discussion of the manuscript and revised the manuscript, and is the primary corresponding author. All of the authors reviewed the manuscript. Y. L. made suggestions for the study, prepared all figures and tables, and is the other corresponding author.

Funding

This work was support by the Humanities and Social Sciences Programme, Ministry of Education (Grant number:23YJAH087) and Shaanxi Normal University High-level Achievement Cultivation Programme (Grant number: 2022BA002).

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics declarations

All methods used in this study were conducted by the relevant guidelines and regulations, in compliance with the relevant requirements of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shaanxi Normal University (Approval number: SNNU20233011).

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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