
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)12997-0
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36966
e36966
Review Article
Water hyacinth: Prospects for biochar-based, nano-enabled biofertilizer development
Irewale Adewale T. irewale.adewale@acefuels-futo.org
a⁎
Dimkpa Christian O. b
Elemike Elias E. c
Oguzie Emeka E. a
a Africa Center of Excellence in Future Energies and Electrochemical Systems (ACEFUELS), Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
b Department of Analytical Chemistry, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT 06511 United States
c Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Petroleum Resources Effurun, Nigeria
⁎ Corresponding author. irewale.adewale@acefuels-futo.org
27 8 2024
15 9 2024
27 8 2024
10 17 e3696615 12 2023
24 8 2024
26 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
The widespread proliferation of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in aquatic ecosystems has raised significant ecological, environmental, and socioeconomic concerns globally. These concerns include reduced biodiversity, impeded water transportation and recreational activities, damage to marine infrastructure, and obstructions in power generation dams and irrigation systems. This review critically evaluates the challenges posed by water hyacinth (WH) and investigates potential strategies for converting its biomass into value-added agricultural products, specifically nanonutrients-fortified, biochar-based, green fertilizer. The review examines various methods for producing functional nanobiochar and green fertilizer to enhance plant nutrient uptake and improve soil nutrient retention. These methods include slow or fast pyrolysis, gasification, laser ablation, arc discharge, or chemical precipitation used for producing biochar which can then be further reduced to nano-sized biochar through ball milling, a top-down approach. Through these means, utilization of WH-derived biomass in economically viable, eco-friendly, sustainable, precision-driven, and smart agricultural practices can be achieved. The positive socioeconomic impacts of repurposing this invasive aquatic plant are also discussed, including the prospects of a circular economy, job creation, reduced agricultural input costs, increased agricultural productivity, and sustainable environmental management. Utilizing WH for nanobiochar (or nano-enabled biochar) for green fertilizer production offers a promising strategy for waste management, environmental remediation, improvement of waterway transportation infrastructure, and agricultural sustainability. To underscore the importance of this work, a metadata analysis of literature carried out reveals that an insignificant section of the body of research on WH and biochar have focused on the nano-fortification of WH biochar for fertilizer development. Therefore, this review aims to expand knowledge on the upcycling of non-food crop biomass, particularly using WH as feedstock, and provides crucial insights into a viable solution for mitigating the ecological impacts of this invasive species while enhancing agricultural productivity.

Graphical abstract

Image 1

Highlights

The main highlights of the review article are stated below.• To synthesize the existing body of literature related to the utilization of water hyacinth for nanobiochar and nanofertilizer production, identifying gaps in literature through advanced metadata search of databases.

• To summarize key research findings on the environmental implications of producing nanobiochar and nanofertilizers derived from water hyacinth.

• To propose a possible mechanism for the action of water hyacinth biochar-based nanofertilizer.

• To identify key government policies and regulatory frameworks as well as the socioeconomic factors supporting the management of water hyacinth and regulating its repurposing for nanobiochar production.

Keywords

Water hyacinth
Nano-biochar
Green nanofertilizer
Upcycling
Sustainable agriculture
Waste management
Environmental remediation
Ecological sustainability
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

1.1 Background and rationale

Longstanding environmental sustainability concerns have more recently been heightened by a rapidly expanding global human population, climate change and related environmental challenges, and the dwindling state of natural resources. In the agriculture and environmental realms, this trend is most notably represented by ongoing soil degradation; loss of productivity; and rampant air, soil, and water pollution from agricultural activities, all of which together contribute to worsening global food and nutrition insecurity [1]. Contemporary efforts to address the pollution and declining productivity of agricultural lands gave rise to a host of crop production techniques such as conventional fertilizer application, organic matter incorporation, crop rotation, irrigation, and agroforestry [2]. While these measures were aimed at increasing crop productivity in many regions, the rising demand for food to sustain the swarming human population and the associated environmental pollution have rendered these practices largely unsustainable. Against this backdrop, recent technological advances have highlighted the potential for nanotechnology-based materials to improve soil health and productivity to desired levels [[3], [4], [5]]. Among such advances, the development of biochar as a soil amendment product is notable. Besides exploiting the carbon storage, soil liming, and inherent high water holding capacity effects of biochar, the preparation of this additive in the nanoscale range (1–100 nm; nm) improves its physicochemical properties in the form of intraparticle forces, cation-exchange potential, and enhanced surface area to volume ratio [6]. In addition, the environmental sustainability profile of such nanoscale interventions can be enhanced by using bio-based materials for their development [7].

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is an invasive aquatic weed commonly found in water bodies in different parts of the world. It is reputed for its rapid growth and high reproductive rate of up to 201 % within 7 days with its seeds able to maintain dormancy for up to 15 years [8].The negative impacts of WH proliferation include reduction in biodiversity; impediments to water transportation, aquatic recreation, and fishing; destruction of bridges and other marine infrastructure; and clogging of waterways, power generation dams and irrigation water systems. WH proliferation also affects the social well-being of the communities around water bodies. These problems have been widely documented in various regions of the globe. For instance, in India, several lakes have been invaded, including, among others, the Katraj, Pichola, and Ulsooru lakes in Pune, Udaipur, and Bangalore, respectively [9]. In South America, after chemical treatments, control programs have been contending with re-infestation in the Guadalupe Dam in Mexico. Furthermore, major infestations of WH invaded Lake Victoria in East Africa, causing negative impacts on fishing communities. Such a bad reputation led the plant to be bestowed with several names in various parts of the world; as indicated in Fig. 1, for example, the fishing communities in southwestern Nigeria call it "water terror" [10].Fig. 1 Names given to water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in different countries.

Fig. 1

To reduce the menace of WH, researchers have identified its agricultural promise and suggested using it as a sustainable raw material for nanobiochar production [11]. Therefore, the current review aims to assess the upcycling of this notorious weed for bio-based nanobiochar and nanofertilizers. The review discusses key research findings on upcycling WH for nanobiochar production. It examines the extant research on the properties of WH, its environmental impact, and challenges in controlling its invasion of inland waters. In addition, the review covers the production methods of nanobiochar and the possible environmental benefits of WH exploitation for nano-enabled biofertilizer development. Finally, an overview of the research on supporting government policies and regulatory framework for this application of WH is presented. We note that upcycling of WH would serve the dual role of environmental management by way of WH clean-up to improve both the aesthetics and the operations of aquatic systems and to sustainably improve soil quality and nutrient utilization efficiency by way of biochar and bio-based, nanonutrient-enhanced efficiency fertilizers. Combined, these approaches will resolve the environmental menace of WHs and mitigate the environmental footprint of conventional mineral-based fertilizers.

Generally, as shown in the search, a gamut of studies done on biochar production, including those involving WH feedstock [12,13], have focused on various applications such as heavy metal remediation and sequestering of emerging organic contaminants [[14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]], organic amendments for improving soil quality [[23], [24], [25], [26]], carbon electrodes and electricity generation [[27], [28], [29], [30]], wastewater treatment [[31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36]], animal feeds [37], and biofuel [13,[38], [39], [40]].

Fig. 2a, illustrates the advanced search of databases used to quantify existing publications on WH biochar-based nanoformulations. Fig. 2b presents the average number of publications per search item across the databases. For instance, “WH” yielded an average of 30,286 publications, while “WH + NF” (water hyacinth and nanofertilizer search couplet) resulted in 29 publications. Fig. 2c, revealed a significant increase in publications on WH, rising from 1415 between 2000 and 2004 to 9087 from 2019 to 2024. Publications on biochar (BC) saw an even steeper upsurge, from 339 (2000–2004) to 71,996 (2019–2024). However, for the combined advanced search item “WH + NF + BC” (water hyacinth, nanofertilizer and biochar), publications grew from zero to only 25 over the same periods.Fig. 2a Databases sampled and the advanced search options utilized.

Fig. 2a

Fig. 2b Average number of publications per advanced search item from all databases.

Legend: WH = water hyacinth. Other items were searched in couplets of WH with A = Agriculture, NT = Nanotechnology, BC = Biochar, BF= Biofertilizer and NF = Nanofertilizer.

Fig. 2b

Fig. 2c Total number of publications per search item from 2000 to 2024 on a 5-yearly basis.

Legend: WH = Water hyacinth, NF = Nanofertilizer, BC = Biochar and WH + NF + BC = all criteria searched as a single item. (NB: only WH + NF + BC data points reference secondary axes: 0–30).

Fig. 2c

Taken together, however, as summarized in Fig. 2b, Fig. 2cb and c, only a few have focused on fortifying biochar derived from WH with nanoscale nutrients to synthesize nano-enabled biochar-based fertilizers as indicated by the data extracted from these databases as of June 20th, 2024. Hence, this review is pertinent to highlight both the few advances made to date and the research gap in this area.

Therefore, this review as part of the ongoing research studies by the authors is aimed at bridging this identified research gap to maximize the benefits derivable from the use of WH-derived biochar.

2 Water hyacinth: an aquatic menace

2.1 Brief overview of water hyacinth and its impact on inland waters

Motivated by the plant's invasive nature and its detrimental environmental and economic implications, research on WH has become expansive, covering the entire scope from the weed's origin and spread from its native Amazon to its impact on water quality and potential valuable applications. Belonging to the family Pontoderiaceae, WH is a free-floating aquatic plant that thrives in inland freshwater collections, particularly lakes, rivers, and ponds [41]. It features broad leaves and purple spiky flowers. With buoyancy-mediated petiolar air sacs, the plant has a variable height that sometimes approaches 1 m [42]. Its reproductive cycle comprises both asexual vegetative and sexual, making the plant remarkably invasive, a characteristic that is also assured by its genetic uniformity [43]. The plant was introduced from the Amazon as ornamental plants and gifts in the early 20th century, eventually spreading to over 50 countries on five continents [42,44]. Fig. 3, Fig. 4 show that many countries worldwide are affected by widespread WH infestations. However, it should be noted that the distribution of WH may change over time due to efforts to manage and control its spread and changes in environmental conditions. Specific to Africa, Mujingni [44] notes that the continent has borne an exceptionally high burden following the weed's initial introduction in Zimbabwe in 1937, after which it heavily colonized key water bodies in Mozambique, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria [45]. In general, nutrient-rich agricultural runoff and industrial waste products in inland water bodies stimulate the avid growth of WHs associated with dense overcoats on the water surface. The persistence of WHs in tropical waters is enhanced by conducive climatic conditions and hydrodynamic factors that sustain its spread [46]. Today, WH is best known for its aggressive invasiveness, water quality degradation, and economic cost, making it a significant environmental and socioeconomic concern in many fishing communities and communities reliant on water as the principal mode of transportation and recreation.Fig. 3 Some countries with reported cases of significant water hyacinth invasion.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4 Early-stage water hyacinth invasion of a Lake at the CORENADR Research Center Xochimilco, Mexico (photo courtesy Chris Dimkpa).

Fig. 4

Several studies have demonstrated the environmental effects of WH invasion [41,44,[47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52]]. Patel [53] notes that the high fecundity exhibited by WH enables it to outcompete most native species for nutrients, resulting in diminished biodiversity in affected water bodies. In addition to driving biodiversity loss, WH disrupts local food chains and suppresses the growth of phytoplankton and other resident microbes. Studies have also demonstrated measurable degradation of water quality in areas with dense WH cover, mainly in the form of sediment and microparticle dissemination and oxygen depletion, which can, in turn, result in asphyxiation of marine flora and fauna [[54], [55], [56]]. Unlike submerged vegetation in water bodies, WH does not release oxygen into the surrounding water, lowering its concentration and reducing other plants' survival. In studying the effects of the weed on the water quality and phytoplankton health in Kenya's Lake Naivasha, Mironga et al. [52] found an inverse relationship between the dissolved oxygen and phytoplankton chlorophyll concentration and WH cover (or infestations). Furthermore, Villamagna and Murphy [47] pointed out that surface coverage by WH is associated with a higher evapotranspiration rate than that recorded in open waters. Furthermore, the dense mat of WH that forms on rivers can impede navigation and irrigation and increase the risk of flooding adjacent areas [57]. However, a less injurious environmental effect of WH is its high absorption capacity, which has been validated in multiple field studies and shown to be useful in removing soil and water contaminants [58,59]. According to Churko et al. [60], WH can serve as a potent bioremediation tool for the extraction of contaminating heavy metals, agrochemical leachates, and inorganic contaminants from the water. Altogether, WH has multiple well-studied negative environmental impacts; recent research highlights potentially beneficial ecological applications of the weed [60]. Table 1 highlights some of the modes of WH menace.Table 1 Summary of modes of WH menace.

Negative effects of water hyacinth	References	
Loss of biodiversity: WH outcompetes native species for nutrients, thereby causing loss of biodiversity	[[50], [61]]	
Disruption of local food chain: WH causes disruption of local food chain via suppression of phytoplankton and other microbes	[53]	
Degradation of water quality: WH causes degradation of water quality through deposition of sediments and microparticles in the water.	[[44], [49], [52]]	
Reduction in dissolved oxygen: In areas of dense coverage, WH causes reduction in dissolved oxygen by limiting photosynthetic activities within the aquatic ecosystem	[[62], [63]]	
Impeding of navigational routes and irrigation systems: WH negatively impacts the use of water for navigation and irrigation purposes	[[47], [51]]	
Clogging of dams: hydroelectric power generation systems clogging through WH biomass	[[57], [64]]	
Increased risk of flooding in adjacent areas: By impeding free-flow of water and creating excessive sediments, WH can increase the risks of flooding in adjacent areas.	[65]	

2.2 Challenges of effective management of water hyacinth infestations

Owing to its rapid growth and invasive nature, WH has been described as one of the world's most difficult weeds to manage [42,57,[66], [67], [68], [69], [70]]. Motivated by aesthetic and biodiversity conservation goals, several large-scale WH management programs have been implemented across different countries, often involving extensive financial and logistical mobilization but achieving limited or short-lasting results. The plant often reinvades the reclaimed ecosystems within a few years. An extensive weed eradication program launched in East Africa's Lake Victoria (mainly in Tanzania and Uganda) and West Africa's Lake Nokoue (Benin) ended with the WH reinvading the lakes less than a decade after the respective programs were completed. In many settings, weed control often relies on mechanical harvesting, which requires investment in heavy machinery such as weed harvesters. Alternative weed management techniques, such as chemical and biological control, have been applied in response to the ineffectiveness of mechanical and physical removal strategies. However, the effectiveness of these approaches, particularly on the large scale necessitated by extensive weed cover, has been limited. While chemical herbicides can kill the weed and limit its expansion, these compounds threaten non-target species, limiting the ecological safety of chemical control methods [67,71]. Similarly, biological control of WH using predator insects such as the weevil beetle is disadvantaged by the limited commercial availability and less significant effectiveness of the method [[72], [73], [74]]. Overall, the control of WH is subject to multiple challenges, with each failure adding to the negative economic implications of the aquatic weed.

2.3 Nanobiochar and its applications

As the nanobiochar precursor, biochar is a carbon-rich material derived from the pyrolysis of crop residues, wood, or other agricultural wastes. Biochar has gained increasing attention for its potential applications in diverse fields, particularly agriculture, environmental remediation, and carbon management [75,76]. An ancient material dating back to civilizations like the Amazonians exemplified by the creation of the historic terra preta anthropogenic dark soils that retained their fertility for centuries, biochar bears unique physicochemical properties central to its versatility and utility in various applications [6]. Chiefly, biochar has a remarkable surface area to volume ratio, is highly porous, and provides an ideal habitat for microbes [77]. Importantly, its porous microstructure fosters nutrient retention and improves the material's soil water-holding capacity, which helps enhance plant growth and resilience [76,78,79]. Moreover, biochar's carbon-rich composition not only stores carbon for an extended period but also mitigates greenhouse gas emissions by preventing the rapid decomposition of organic matter in the soil [80].

The general properties and physicochemical characteristics of biochar depend on its precursor material, the pyrolytic process conditions, and the type of reactor used. The pyrolytic process usually occurs in the absence or near-absence of oxygen and typically at temperatures ranging from 300 °C to 700 °C [81]. The specific conditions and methods used can significantly affect the properties and effectiveness of the biochar, such as slow pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, carbonization, and gasification [82]. The latter requires temperatures ranging between 1000 °C and 1600 °C. Some drawbacks of bulk biochar production include the energy cost for the thermochemical conversion, the high variability in properties due to differences in feedstocks and pyrolytic conditions, possible emissions of pollutants during the production process, and so forth. Researchers, however, are seeking various ways to mitigate these disadvantages in biochar production, including conversion to nanobiochar to enhance its value.

The innovation from bulk or conventional biochar to nanobiochar, which entails the preparation of biochar with structural size in the nanoscale (1–100 nm), has provided a means of extending its beneficial physicochemical and morphological characteristics by modulating the production methods [6,83]. Nanobiochar development involves the integration of nanomaterials into the biochar matrix, which allows purpose-driven modifications and incorporation of specific nanoparticles for tailored applications in different industries [2]. By incorporating nanoparticles such as graphene or metal oxides, the material gains enhanced reactivity, increased adsorption capacity, and improved electrical conductivity compared to bulk biochar [84]. From an agricultural perspective, nanobiochar production represents an exciting opportunity for engineering purpose-specific, tunable, and environment-friendly solutions to longstanding crop productivity and environmental challenges.

Nanobiochar has found several applications, capitalizing on the unique combination of its carbon-rich structure and the additional functionalities conferred by incorporating nanoparticles. For instance, an attempt was made to find an innovative use for WH as a green precursor for carbon composite adsorbents and supercapacitor electrodes [30]. Also, another study Mahmoud et al. [85] investigated the effect of biochar solely or combined with nanosilica and nanopotassium on the agro-physiological and biochemical constituents of potatoes. The results show that the biochar with the nano-scale elements significantly improved plants' agronomic variables. Generally, the properties of nano-enhanced biochar that confer soil improvement include its high surface area, adsorption, and nanoscale-derived reactivity. These properties also make nanobiochar well-suited for other applications, including soil amendments, stabilization of soil organic matter, improved soil fertility, reduced nitrous oxide emissions, carbon sequestration, removal of heavy metals, organic pollutants, and other contaminants from wastewater and drinking water sources [34,[86], [87], [88], [89], [90], [91], [92], [93]]. Recently, nanobiochar has been studied as an emerging ecological remediation tool utilized in waste management processes to adsorb odors, toxic gases, heavy metals, and other pollutants in landfills, water bodies, and wastewater treatment facilities [[94], [95], [96]]. In addition, nanobiochar has been used to remediate polluted soil profiles. In this role, its ability to adsorb contaminants, such as pesticides, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), is critical for the restoration of soil quality and productivity [77,97]. In addition, studies have shown that nanobiochar improves soil fertility and plant growth by enhancing nutrient and water retention and promoting crop nutrient uptake [2]. Furthermore, nanoparticles impart specific beneficial characteristics, including improvements in nutrient release or disease resistance. Like bulk biochar, nanobiochar is also used for carbon sequestration, which involves burying nanobiochar in soil to reduce the release of atmospheric carbon dioxide and the associated greenhouse effect [24,98].Altogether, the controlled addition of nanomaterials has extended the utility of biochar in a wide range of applications [85,99,100]. Therefore, leveraging the aggressive proliferation of WH in aquatic ecosystems to upcycle its biomass as feedstock for biochar production could have several benefits, as shown in Fig. 5.Fig. 5 Possible benefits of water hyacinth derived biochar (WH Biochar) application.

Fig. 5

2.4 Technical approaches to nanobiochar production

Environmental concerns continue to drive efforts to develop sustainable processes for nanostructured materials, with approaches focusing on low energy consumption, less use of toxic solvents, and utilization of bio-based materials. Bulk biochar, which can be subsequently converted to nano-sized biochar or nano-enabled biochar (commonly called nanobiochar), can be prepared using such feedstocks as animal wastes [101], rice husk [92,102], sugar cane bagasse [103], wood residues [28], and sewage sludge [104]. Conventionally, carbonaceous nanoparticles have been produced using such processes as slow or fast pyrolysis, gasification, laser ablation, arc discharge, or chemical precipitation [2,6,22,105]. However, limiting the material's ecological footprint demands methods that utilize less energy and more readily available precursors. Naghdi et al. [106] describe the production and characterization of nanobiochar using ball milling. This low-cost top-down method involves the application of mechanical forces for particle size reduction to nanopowders of different sizes. Table 2 shows a summary of various biochar feedstocks, methods of preparation, and key applications while Table 3 focuses on some examples of biochar derived from WH and its various applications.Table 2 Examples of biochar feedstock materials, percentage yield, pyrolytic conditions and applications.

Table 2Feedstock	Biochar yield (wt%)	Pyrolytic conditions	Biochar application	reference	
Animal waste (Bovine bone)	63 %	650 °C–1000 °C
2 – 4hrs resident time	Adsorbent for textile dye contaminated waste water	Côrtes et al., 2019	
Animal waste (Fish scale)	43 %	650 °C–1000 °C
2 – 4hrs resident time	Adsorbent for textile dye contaminated waste water	Côrtes et al., 2019	
Rice husk	40–45 %	500 °C	Agricultural (nutrient release) and environmental (pollutant adsorption) applications for biochar	Bushra & Remya, 2024; Nagaraju et al., 2023	
sugar cane bagasse	23 % and 58 %	450 °C for 4hrs and 600 °C	Application in soil enhancement, carbon sequestration and plants (pak choi, maize and groundnut) growth	Nie et al., 2018; [107]	
wood residues	21 %–27 %	200 °C for 1hr followed by 750 °C for 1hr	Use as supercapacitor electrodes and Cu2+ and Zn2+ adsorbents	J. Jiang et al., 2013a; [108]	
sewage sludge	N/A	400 °C–800 °C	Application as catalyst for pollutant degradation	J. Jiang et al., 2013a	

Table 3 Examples of WH biochar, percentage yield, pyrolytic conditions and various applications.

Table 3Biochar yield (wt%)	Pyrolytic conditions	Main elemental composition (%)	Biochar application	reference	
16.2–46.8	300–450 °C for 30–60mins	C: 32.8 %	Testing effect on plant and fish growth	[109]	
H: 2.7 %	
P: 0.7 %	
N: 3.0 %	
S: 0.2 %	
K: 4.1 %	
42.3–48.8	350 °C and 500 °C for 60mins	Not determined	Adsorption of ciprofloxacin by biochar	[110]	
39	350–400 °C	C: 53.4 %	Hydromechanical properties of soil amended with biochar	[111]	
O: 42.8 %	
H: 2.0 %	
N: 1.8 %	

The process utilizes small, spherical grinding media such as steel or ceramic balls that are agitated within a milling chamber containing the feedstock. The repeated impact and shear forces generated by the moving balls effectively break down the biochar into smaller particles, including nanoscale particles, when the milling process is appropriately controlled [20,112,113]. Ball milling has drawn significant scholarly attention as a low-cost approach to producing nanoporous carbon, with the particle size being regulated by varying the speed of the rotating steel and the milling time. However, Ramanayaka et al. [114] noted that ball milling renders non-uniform-sized nanoparticles, which tend to collide and aggregate, resulting in unintended large particle sizes [114,115]. To overcome these shortfalls, the authors suggest double-disc milling as a more refined method for fabricating nanobiochar with evenly sized particles, higher quantities, and more granular procedural control. A strategic approach to the sustainable synthesis of biochar, which is of utmost importance, should entail the selection of non-competing, non-food, and locally sourced feedstock materials. This emphasis on the importance of feedstock selection and location can make the residents feel responsible for the sustainable production, fostering a sense of duty towards the environment [116].

However, regardless of the raw material source, nanobiochar has been prepared using a variety of techniques, ranging from ball-milling to microwave pyrolysis. In addition to direct synthesis of nanobiochar from various raw materials, nanosized biochar molecules are readily formed during preparation of bulk biochar, although its yield is limited to less than 2 % [117]. The common nanobiochar fabrication techniques can be classified into two: top-down and bottom-up [114]. In general, the top-down approach involves breaking down bulk feedstocks into smaller structures, and comprises of fabrication techniques such as cutting, grinding, and centrifugation. This approach has been popularized because of its relative ease of use and low energy consumption and cost. In contrast, the bottom-up approach entails up-constructing materials from precursors to the nanoscale, including wet chemistry methods such as precipitation, ionic gelation, and sol-gel methods, among several others. However, the most common and widely studied nanobiochar production approach is ball-milling, a top-down method involving grinding of the feedstock material between stainless steel balls of varying shape and speed. According to Amusat et al. [20], ball milling is effective as it can fabricate nanobiochar while preserving the material's crystal structure. Moreover, ball milling, with its eco-friendly and low-cost nature, reassures of its sustainability. Other top-down techniques for nanobiochar fabrication include disc-milling, chemical treatment, and in-situ pyrolysis. The physicochemical properties of nanobiochar can be varied by changing the feedstock, milling time, and pyrolysis temperature. Zhang et al. [36] prepared WH-derived nanobiochar through in-situ pyrolysis at different temperatures between 250 °C and 550 °C, yielding the highest adsorption capacity at 450 °C pyrolytic temperature. Other studies have incorporated a pre-treatment step, such as carbonization or pre-heating, for optimization of feedstock prior to ball-milling, improving particle size and reducing the chance for re-aggregation [28,[118], [119], [120], [121]]. Sonification is an alternative, high-energy nanobiochar production technique that utilizes ultrasonic radiation for bulk biochar disintegration, which is then suspended in an alkaline solvent (sodium hexametaphosphate) and separated through sieving and centrifugation. Altogether, multiple methods of nanobiochar fabrication have been developed and are applicable to the synthesis of the material from WH feedstock [23,36,122,123].

3 Repurposing water hyacinth as nano-enabled biochar

3.1 Environmental benefits of water hyacinth as a biochar feedstock

Besides posing severe threats to agroecosystems across the globe, WH has proved particularly difficult to control, defying virtually all mitigation methods employed to limit its expansion on nutrient-rich water bodies. Consequently, significant research has been directed at finding alternative uses for the invasive weed, including biogas formation, conversion into animal feeds, green fertilizer, ecological remediation, and synthesis of biochar and nanobiochar [38,41,116,[122], [123], [124], [125]]. As a feedstock for nanobiochar production, WH is a rapidly regenerating, low-cost, biodegradable, and sustainable raw material [23,126]. Moreover, the high lignocellulose content of WH ranging from 60.8 % to 73 % of its dry biomass [127,128], renders it suitable for pyrolysis, which is the crucial biochar production process. Therefore, the utilization of WH as a raw material for nanobiochar production constitutes a convenient means of effectively controlling the plant's aggressive spread while sustainably producing nanobiochar, with no feedstock acquisition cost other than the cost incurred in the transportation of the biomass to a processing center [23,115,123,126].

Bio-based nanobiochar fabricated from WH feedstock holds notable environmental and sustainability advantages. The conversion of WH into nanobiochar represents a sustainable approach to removing invasive aquatic weeds from water bodies, mitigating oxygen depletion and loss of biodiversity effects associated with such proliferation. Moreover, the role of nanobiochar as a carbon sink that sequesters greenhouse gas and mitigates emissions, especially of CO2, is well reported in the literature [79,87,92,[129], [130], [131]]. Furthermore, WH-based nanobiochar has been used to remediate nutrient-depleted soils, improving soil structure and enhancing nutrient retention and water-holding capacity. Studies have also ascertained the effectiveness of both WH and nanobiochar as an adsorbent material valuable in the removal of heavy metals and other pollutants from water bodies [11,23,47,[57], [58], [59], [60],132,133]. Studies have shown that WH-derived biochar has a high water-retention capacity and potential to act as a carbon sink in environmental protection programs (reviewed, for example, in Ref. [134]). Elbehiry et al. [135] noted that WH-based nanobiochar was a highly efficient absorbent for removing heavy metals from contaminated water. These uses highlight the environmental benefits of upcycling WH as a raw material for nanobiochar production. As a strategy to develop more novel applications for the prolific aquatic weed, WH is also being explored for possible use in a microbial fuel cell for wastewater treatment and electricity generation [113], and for activated electrodes formulation in an eco-friendly and sustainable system [[27], [28], [29], [30],136].

4 Repurposing water hyacinth as innovative biobased fertilizers

4.1 Composition of water hyacinth

A significant section of the extant literature and preliminary observations from the authors indicate that WH can be a good candidate for green fertilizer, usually in the form of compost manure or nanoformulations [137]. The weed is well-suited for this purpose due to its rich nutrient and organic content, the latter described as primarily consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and other carbon-containing compounds that render it useful for agricultural soil remediation [137,138]. Moreover, WH has a high moisture content, which accounts for over 80 % of its fresh weight, enabling it to increase the concentration of nutrients to crops when applied as top dressing. Importantly, WH is rich in nitrogen, which accounts for up to 3.2 % of its dry weight [11], and generally occurs in proteins and amino acids, as with plants. Since nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth as a critical component of fertilizers, its occurrence in WH makes the weed appropriate for use as a biobased fertilizer feedstock [139]. Similarly, WH contains appreciable amounts of phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients like iron, manganese, zinc, and copper (Fig. 6). Overall, the chemical composition of WH makes it suitable as a sustainable component of biobased fertilizers and possible use for animal feed production. However, its ability to bioaccumulate pollutants like mercury, lead, and strontium-90 up to 10,000 times its surroundings can be a drawback [37,[140], [141], [142], [143], [144]].Fig. 6 Elemental and organic compound composition of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Data adapted from [127,128].

Fig. 6

4.2 Biogenic materials for nano-enabled fertilizer development

The use of nano-based polymers for fertilizer development represents an innovative and sustainable approach to increasing crop performance and fertilizer use efficiency. Use of various plant-based feedstocks such as wheat straw [145], rice husk [92,102], bagasse [146,147], bamboo [82,148], pinewood [149], corn stalk, and sawdust for production of nanofertilizers have been extensively demonstrated [2,5,76,78,96,130,[150], [151], [152], [153], [154]]. Aside from allowing for a high surface area-to-volume ratio, nanotechnology-based fertilizer development also offers the benefits of controlled nutrient release and lower environmental impact than conventional fertilizers. According to Rop et al. [155], WH has gained significant attention as an emerging bio-based nanopolymer for controlled-release fertilizer development, where their work, incorporation of water-soluble phosphate fertilizer into a WH acrylamide polymer increased the nutrient use efficiency and reduced leaching and phosphate toxicity in the local soil. In another study, Kalaivani and Ravi [156] synthesized and characterized nanocomposites of ZnO nanopolymers from a WH extract. The authors found that the nanofertilizer significantly improved root development, enhanced photosynthetic rate, and improved nitrogen use efficiency. Taken together, the sorption and desorption of nutrients in the plant biomasses by taking advantage of charged functional groups on the biomass surface are significant features of the mechanism involved (e.g. Refs. [[157], [158], [159]]. In this process, nutrient release could be significantly controlled, compared to regular fertilizers of equivalent chemistry. Thus, another potential area of application of WH as a nanobiofertilizer could be based on the biosorption of nanoscale nutrients such as N (as ammonium), nanohydroxyapatite (P), K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, Fe, and other nutrients by a slurry of fine powder of the plant biomass derived from milling or grinding. In this regard, the nanoscale dimensions can be claimed from either the added nanonutrient or nano-biomaterials originating from the grinding process. In fact, this strategy can be incorporated into the nanobiochar one described above, where the biochar from WH can be used for the biosorption process. While these studies highlight the potential utility of WH as a scaffolding or adsorbent (nano)polymer in nanoscale fertilizers, the concept is still nascent and has received relatively little attention in research and development at scale. Fig. 7 shows a proposed WH biochar-based nanofertilizer mechanism in plant nutrient fortification.Fig. 7 Schematics of proposed mechanism for water hyacinth (WH) biochar nanonutrient loading for biofertilizer formulation and nutrient release to plants via desorption.

Fig. 7

In the proposed mechanism, nanonutrients are adsorbed on the surface and into the pores of the WH biochar through both chemisorption and physisorption [160]. The nutrient sorption is facilitated through electrostatic attraction by the surface charges, pore filling, hydrophobic interactions, H-bonding, complexation, ion-exchange, covalent bonding, precipitation and van der Waals forces [161,162].These nutrients can then be released to the plants at a controlled rate via desorption.

5 Benefits of sustainable upcycling of water hyacinth

As noted, several methods can be used to remove WH from water bodies, including mechanical dredging using machinery, in-situ cutting, chemical control, manual harvesting, and biological control [44,50,52,[66], [67], [68],71,163]. Moreover, the challenges current WH control efforts face, particularly the high economic cost of mechanical removal and the rapid reinvasion of reclaimed water bodies by the weed, have been emphasized [47,164]. Recently, the effectiveness of WH control efforts has been hampered by resistance from stakeholders holding the view that complete eradication of the weed is inappropriate owing to its beneficial applications in agriculture, energy, and ecological remediation. Acknowledging these potential benefits, a more innovative approach is to design a sustainable method of harvesting and repurposing the weed for various industrial uses, including as a component of bio-based fertilizers [41]. Centered on a circular economy, the model proposes weed harvesting at a rate that allows sufficient regeneration to maintain a continuous supply in the future [61]. Considering the potential of WH to foster the local economy, researchers have noted that harvesting methods should be tailored to the available resources to ensure economic sustainability, with unduly labor-intensive approaches such as transport of the bulky biomass being limited to control overall cost [11,61,165]. Altogether, innovative approaches are needed to ensure that WH collection for biofertilizer development and other uses remains sustainable.

5.1 Carbon sequestration and soil improvement

Several studies have demonstrated the utility of nanobiochar as a carbon sink for the long-term mitigation of carbon emissions. Nanobiochar has a high carbon content, typically exceeding 70 %, which makes it an effective carbon sink. It captures and stores carbon in its organic material, reducing the release of CO2 into the atmosphere and hence contributing to climate change mitigation by offsetting carbon emissions from various sources [2,75,154,166]. Moreover, biochar is highly stable and resistant to decomposition, maintaining the sequestered residual carbon in the soil for an extended period, potentially hundreds to thousands of years, depending on the feedstock and the pyrolytic conditions [167,168]. Quantitatively, a biochar yield of 25 % with 80 % carbon will retain 40 % (20 g) of the biomass carbon assuming a 50 % carbon in the feedstock biomass [169]. Notably, this carbon would have otherwise been returned to the atmosphere via decomposition or burning of the organic biomass. To validate the carbon sequestration potential of biochar application, Wang et al. in a recent study found that 1 ha of agro-ecological space can sequester up to 30 tonnes of carbon with biochar amendments [170].

In addition, nano-sized biochar can improve soil structure by modulating soil porosity, reducing compaction, and increasing water retention capacity. Soil pore sizes usually determine its water retention capacity with the sizes usually classified into 5 according to Soil Science Society of America: macropores (>80 μm), mesopores (30–80 μm), micropores (5–30 μm), ultra-micropores (0.1–5 μm), and nanopores (<0.1 μm) [171]. Water drains quickly by gravity through macroporous soils, thereby making the water unavailable to plants. For other soil types, the mechanism of water draining differs base on the pore sizes, and the rate is directly proportional to the pore sizes. However, when amended with biochar, especially nanobiochar, the water retention capacity of the soil is enhanced because the nanobiochar intrapores are in a much smaller range (between above 50 nm to less than 2 nm). This in turn improves the soil-biochar interactions [172], ultimately enhancing the soil structure for better aeration and water infiltration, promoting root growth and enhancing plant nutrient uptake. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 8, nanobiochar has a high cation exchange capacity, enabling it to retain and slowly release essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium [2,75,76,154]. Collectively, these properties translate to significant positive environmental and agricultural impacts of nanobiochar.Fig. 8 Schematic diagram showing roles of nanobiochar on soil improvement.

Fig. 8

5.2 Water pollution mitigation

Nanobiochar can effectively remove pollutants from water, making it a valuable tool for water treatment and environmental remediation. Nanobiochar has a high surface area and a porous structure, which enhances its adsorption capacity. It can adsorb a wide range of water pollutants, including heavy metals and toxic elements such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium, and organic contaminants such as pesticides and other agrochemicals [2,32,75,140,173,174]. The adsorption process involves binding contaminants to the surface of nanobiochar particles through physical and chemical interactions [2]. Nanobiochar can effectively adsorb organic pollutants and pesticides from water, improving water quality in agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and urban stormwater [29,32,34,84,93].

5.3 Biodiversity conservation

The removal and conversion of WH into nanobiochar contributes to biodiversity conservation and habitat restoration by removing the detrimental ecosystem effects of this invasive aquatic species. WH is notorious for its rapid growth and ability to outcompete native aquatic plants, resulting in the degradation of natural habitats and the displacement of native species [175]. Consequently, its removal is an effective strategy for habitat restoration of local biodiversity. Simultaneously, nanobiochar has been shown to be useful in the phytoremediation of native plants through growth enhancement and removal of ecosystem contaminants. Repurposing WH as a raw material for nanobiochar production can actively contribute to conserving aquatic biodiversity in affected water bodies.

5.4 Socioeconomic benefits

The harvesting and repurposing WH as a raw material for nanobiochar and nanofertilizer production have significant socioeconomic implications for local communities [5,47,116,176]. As a sustainable weed control strategy, this approach frees water bodies for economic uses such as fishing, irrigation, and navigation. Moreover, utilizing biochar-based nanofertilizers promises significant positive economic effects through job creation, higher agricultural productivity, and opening domestic markets for locally sourced raw materials. Due to their higher nutrient use efficiency, nanofertilizers represent a cost-effective method of increasing agricultural crop yield, thereby reducing the input of mineral fertilizers [[177], [178], [179], [180]]. Notably, the use of WH as a raw material reduces the environmental impacts of mineral fertilizer use, including pollution from ammonia volatilization, emission of nitrous oxide, and leaching or run-off of nitrates and phosphates into waterbodies, while simultaneously driving ecologic remediation of cultivated soils. A notable social implication of WH repurposing is its association with the concept of ecological nudging, through which local communities are incentivized to control the invasion of WH by demonstrating its utility as a feedstock for biochar and bio-based nanofertilizers. Taken together, WH utilization for nanobiochar and bio-based fertilizer production can turn this invasive weed into a socially and economically beneficial resource.

Although, it is generally difficult to quantitatively gauge the economics of utilization of WH-derived biochar, since it is still an emerging concept, however, a simple financial analysis represented by equation (1) can give an overall insight into the possible profit by subtracting the various costs from the benefits [[181], [182], [183]].[1] NP = BC + E − C – F – T – O – A

Where:

NP = net profit.

BC = biochar value (including agronomic and carbon sequestration)

E = biochar energy sales (e.g. biochar or charcoal, syngas, biofuel etc)

C = capital costs (equipment procurement, real estate costs etc)

F = feedstock costs (e.g. production, harvesting, transportation, storage)

T = biochar costs (biochar transportation and storage)

O = operational costs.

A = application costs.

6 Regulatory framework and cost-benefit implications of repurposing water hyacinth as agrochemicals

Multiple international and national policies support the development of sustainable solutions to the challenges posed to agricultural productivity, such as the development of green nanobiochar. Along this line, several of these efforts have been enshrined in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, which address a range of socioeconomic and environmental issues, including zero poverty, hunger, clean water, and climate action [184,185]. Following the Paris Agreement of December 12, 2015, over 100 countries have adopted multiple components of the Nationally Determined Contributions, outlining their commitment and individual goals aimed at addressing climate change. The development of green nanobiochar and fertilizers is a key strategy for contributing to climate change action, particularly in line with the material's role in carbon sequestration and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Besides the international framework for environmental sustainability solutions, key regional and national government policies and initiatives continue to support the development of green nanocomposites for various applications. In the 10.13039/501100000780 European Union , the development of green biochar is supported by the 10.13039/100016124 Common Agricultural Policy and the Circular Economy Action Plan, both of which reflect the union's ambition towards climate change mitigation. While other countries' policies do not feature such direct emphasis on green nanobiochar development, similar supportive regulatory frameworks are in place in many nations. Collectively, these initiatives and regulations represent a solid foundation for a future prospect for biobased nano-agro inputs development. However, any regulatory framework must be matched with a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis, a crucial step in the journey towards sustainable agriculture, to make such regulations investment-friendly.

While a formal cost-benefit analysis of the production of WH-based agrochemical has not been reported in the literature, a few studies have conducted econometric analyses of WH utilization for similar green applications. For example, Wainger et al. [186] conducted an evidence-based cost-benefit analysis of the WH management, comparing the resource costs of its harvesting to the economic returns of repurposing the weed. They found that the cost of herbicides and biological control programs were justified by the gains from navigation, fishing, water treatment, and boating businesses on reclaimed water, with a cost-benefit ratio of 34:1. A similar analysis of WH utilization for nanobiochar formation would need to be conducted and to include costs related to the weed's harvesting, labor, equipment, and the fabrication process of the agrochemical. Moreover, the ecosystem and agricultural productivity benefits of the green agrochemical increase the advantages of WH repurposing for this application, which is in addition to the economic gains from increased access to the reclaimed water bodies. This potential for WH-based agrochemicals to revolutionize sustainable agriculture is a beacon of hope in our quest for environmental sustainability.

Commercial inorganic fertilizer, which is mostly employed to boost agricultural food production, pose significant ecological sustainability and economic problems, while being characterized by high imbalance in nutrient composition [160]. This is due mainly to the low NUE which makes its application environmentally harmful and economically ineffective. For example, an average NPK fertilizer can supply 20–30 % of its nutrient to the plant with the rest volatilized, emitted, leached or washed away in runoff water to aquatic environments [178,187,188]. The cost associated with such resource wastage is enormous [184]. For example, using Nigeria as a case study, according to the Fertilizer Technical Working Group [189], fertilizer use in Nigeria has been increasing since 2011 and as of 2023, it stands at 1.64 million metric tonnes Fig. 9. If 70–80 % of this quantity is lost due to low NUE, at the current rate of N55,000 per 50 kg of fertilizer, it amounts to a whooping loss of N1.8 trillion annually (about $1.8 billion/year). This is apart from the colossal environmental and ecological damage such nutrient loss will also cause.Fig. 9 Nigerian annual fertilizer consumption from 2011. (Data from Africa Fertilizer, 2024).

Fig. 9

7 Conclusion: challenges and future prospects

Taken together, this review aimed to promote scientific research and innovation in the field of green chemistry and environmental engineering, by controlling WH proliferation which otherwise poses great ecological and social threat [67]. By so doing, it is contributing to academic knowledge and practical solutions for sustainable agriculture [94,158,190]. Clearly, it is important to sustainably harness the benefits derivable from biochar from WH. In this regard, advances in nanotechnology, particularly the fortification of biochar with nanoscale nutrients, hold strong promise for improving soil health and productivity to provide adequate and nutritious food for the increasing human population at lower environmental cost. Notably, producing biochar at the nanoscale enhances its properties, like water retention and surface area. Therefore, WH, an otherwise invasive weed, can be used as a sustainable feedstock for producing nanobiochar, facilitating its clean-up from infested areas while improving soil quality and nutrient efficiency upon application. The peculiarity of WH, namely, rapid growth, low cost, biodegradability, and high lignocellulose content, make it ideal for pyrolysis for biochar production and other downstream products such as fertilizers. These benefits combine with related advantages in carbon sequestration that contribute to the net zero carbon by acting as a carbon sink, as well as wastewater treatment and active electrode development for sustainable energy generation.

Despite the potential socioeconomic benefits of WH exploitation for nanoscale biochar and subsequent fertilizer production, the process is not without its challenges. The most immediate challenge is the labor-intensive nature of WH harvesting due to the weed's dense growth and the need for expensive collection operations. Hence, mechanized harvesting methods should be adopted where they are already unavailable. Another challenge is the fabrication of nanobiochar using WH at an industrial scale, which is hindered by the weed's high water content and bulkiness, necessitating large-scale drying and transport operations. Moreover, WH's avid nutrient uptake capacity predisposes it to contamination from heavy metals and other pollutants from water, introducing the risk of further contamination when the weed is utilized for nanobiochar development. The control of particle size during the production of nanobiochar on an industrial scale is also a challenge, especially under low-resource settings where WH invasion on inland water bodies is rampant. Despite these barriers, the prospects of this application are favored by an expanding agricultural sector driven by a growing population, the increasing prioritization of sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural inputs among consumers and policymakers, and growing research and development on sustainable exploitation of WH. Consequently, repurposing WH for nanobiochar and nanoscale fertilizer development must overcome several potential barriers, as enunciated above.

Current studies have firmly established the need for a sustainable approach to WH control and utilization in producing green nanobiochar and nanofertilizers. However, additional research is needed for refining and optimizing the processes involved in converting WH into these agromaterials, including, but not limited to.• The determination of the most efficient pyrolysis conditions, including temperature and time.

• Understanding the implications of pre-processing techniques, such as the separation of plant biomass into different tissue types.

• Evaluating different post-treatment methods to enhance the quality and properties of nanobiochar, including material characterization and functionalization.

• Assessing the possible toxicity of WH-derived nanobiochar, especially concerning heavy metals bioaccumulation.

• Conducting an economic viability study of large-scale nanobiochar production from WH, including a direct cost-benefit assessment of nanobiochar development from this aquatic plant, both from the consumer standpoint and the business investor angle.

Data availability

All data used in this review will be made available upon request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Adewale T. Irewale: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Christian O. Dimkpa: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization. Elias E. Elemike: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. Emeka E. Oguzie: Validation, Supervision, Project administration.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to Africa Center of Excellence in Future Energies and Electrochemical Systems (ACEFUELS) at Federal University of Technology, Owerri, for providing the invaluable research and training opportunity that laid the foundation for this work. Great appreciation also goes to Reverend Sister Dr. Scholastica Chukwu (the Librarian at FUTO), who assisted with guidance on the use of research citation and referencing tools. Finally, authors appreciate Dr. Foluso O. Agunbiade and Dr. Oyeboade A. Oyetunde for their meticulous proofreading and insightful feedback, which greatly enhanced the quality of this manuscript.
==== Refs
References

1 Beig B. Nanotechnology-based Controlled Release of Sustainable Fertilizers. A Review Aug. 01, 2022 Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH 10.1007/s10311-022-01409-w
2 Rajput V.D. Nano-biochar: a novel solution for sustainable agriculture and environmental remediation Environ. Res. 210 Jul. 2022 112891 10.1016/j.envres.2022.112891
3 Anderson A.J. Britt D.W. Dimkpa C.O. Nano–microbe interaction and implications for soil health and plant vigor: dialogs in the rhizosphere Nano-Enabled Sustainable and Precision Agriculture 2023 Elsevier 293 353 10.1016/B978-0-323-91233-4.00013-2
4 Dimkpa C. Fertilizers for food and nutrition security in sub-Saharan Africa: an overview of soil health implications Frontiers in Soil Science 3 Mar 2023 10.3389/fsoil.2023.1123931
5 Irewale A.T. Dimkpa C.O. Agunbiade F.O. Oyetunde O.A. Elemike E.E. Oguzie E.E. Unlocking sustainable agricultural development in Africa via bio-nanofertilizer application - challenges, opportunities and prospects Sci Afr 25 Sep. 2024 e02276 10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02276
6 Shafiq F. Anwar S. Firdaus‐e‐Bareen Zhang L. Ashraf M. Nano‐biochar: properties and prospects for sustainable agriculture Land Degrad. Dev. 34 9 May 2023 2445 2463 10.1002/ldr.4620
7 Giri V.P. A review of sustainable use of biogenic nanoscale agro-materials to enhance stress tolerance and nutritional value of plants Plants 12 4 Feb. 2023 815 10.3390/plants12040815 36840163
8 Soeprobowati T. Prasetyo S. Anggoro S. The growth rate of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (mart.) solms) in rawapening lake, central java Journal of Ecological Engineering 22 6 Jun. 2021 222 231 10.12911/22998993/137678
9 S. Gopal, “Researchers innovate to make money out of water hyacinth,” India Mongabay Online Platform. Accessed: May 17, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://india.mongabay.com/2018/01/researchers-innovate-to-generate-money-out-of-water-hyacinth/.
10 Bolorunduro P.L. Water hyacinth infestation: nuisance or nugget 2023 [Online]. Available: http://hdl.handle.net/1834/18836
11 Gunnarsson C.C. Petersen C.M. Water hyacinths as a resource in agriculture and energy production: a literature review Waste Manag. 27 1 Jan. 2007 117 129 10.1016/j.wasman.2005.12.011 16580191
12 Rezania S. Ponraj M. Din M.F.M. Songip A.R. Sairan F.M. Chelliapan S. The diverse applications of water hyacinth with main focus on sustainable energy and production for new era: an overview Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 Jan. 2015 943 954 10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.006
13 Ezzariai A. Identifying advanced biotechnologies to generate biofertilizers and biofuels from the world's worst aquatic weed Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 9 Dec. 2021 10.3389/fbioe.2021.769366
14 Kusuma H.S. Trends on adsorption of lead (Pb) using water hyacinth: bibliometric evaluation of Scopus database Environ. Res. 244 Mar. 2024 117917 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117917
15 Binda G. Exploring the adsorption of Pb on microalgae-derived biochar: a versatile material for environmental remediation and electroanalytical applications Chemosensors 10 5 Apr. 2022 168 10.3390/chemosensors10050168
16 Chen T. Zhou Z. Han R. Meng R. Wang H. Lu W. Adsorption of cadmium by biochar derived from municipal sewage sludge: impact factors and adsorption mechanism Chemosphere 134 Sep. 2015 286 293 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.052 25966459
17 Xu Z. Xing Y. Ren A. Ma D. Li Y. Hu S. Study on adsorption properties of water hyacinth-derived biochar for uranium (VI) J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 324 3 Jun. 2020 1317 1327 10.1007/s10967-020-07160-2
18 Ahuja R. Kalia A. Sikka R. C. P Nano modifications of biochar to enhance heavy metal adsorption from wastewaters: a review ACS Omega 7 50 Dec. 2022 45825 45836 10.1021/acsomega.2c05117 36570198
19 Cao X. Double-edged sword effect of nano-biochar for Cd2+ adsorption on zeolite J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 11 3 Jun. 2023 109901 10.1016/j.jece.2023.109901
20 Amusat S.O. Kebede T.G. Dube S. Nindi M.M. Ball-milling synthesis of biochar and biochar–based nanocomposites and prospects for removal of emerging contaminants: a review J. Water Proc. Eng. 41 Jun. 2021 101993 10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.101993
21 Xing J. Sorption of organic contaminants by biochars with multiple porous structures: experiments and molecular dynamics simulations mediated by three-dimensional models J. Hazard Mater. 458 Sep. 2023 131953 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131953
22 Abbas Z. A critical review of mechanisms involved in the adsorption of organic and inorganic contaminants through biochar Arabian J. Geosci. 11 16 Aug. 2018 448 10.1007/s12517-018-3790-1
23 Abd El-Azeim M. Salah Z. Hammam A. Assessment of water hyacinth biochar as a soil amendment for sandy soils Journal of Soil Sciences and Agricultural Engineering 12 6 Jun. 2021 431 444 10.21608/jssae.2021.182662
24 Wijitkosum S. Jiwnok P. Elemental composition of biochar obtained from agricultural waste for soil amendment and carbon sequestration Appl. Sci. 9 19 Sep. 2019 3980 10.3390/app9193980
25 Gezahegn A. Pyrolysis temperature changes the physicochemical characteristics of water hyacinth-based biochar as a potential soil amendment Biomass Convers Biorefin Jan. 2024 10.1007/s13399-024-05338-2
26 Pignatello J.J. Uchimiya M. Abiven S. Aging of biochar in soils and its implications Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 249 276 10.4324/9781003297673-10
27 Chu M. A comprehensive review of capacitive deionization technology with biochar-based electrodes: biochar-based electrode preparation, deionization mechanism and applications Chemosphere 307 Nov. 2022 136024 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136024
28 Jiang J. Highly ordered macroporous woody biochar with ultra-high carbon content as supercapacitor electrodes Electrochim. Acta 113 Dec. 2013 481 489 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.121
29 Chaijak P. Michu P. Modified water hyacinth biochar as a low-cost supercapacitor electrode for electricity generation from pharmaceutical wastewater Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 31 6 Nov. 2022 5471 5475 10.15244/pjoes/150463
30 Saning A. Green and sustainable zero-waste conversion of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) into superior magnetic carbon composite adsorbents and supercapacitor electrodes RSC Adv. 9 42 2019 24248 24258 10.1039/C9RA03873F 35527901
31 Amdeha E. Biochar-based nanocomposites for industrial wastewater treatment via adsorption and photocatalytic degradation and the parameters affecting these processes Biomass Convers Biorefin Jul. 2023 10.1007/s13399-023-04512-2
32 Noreen S. Abd-Elsalam K.A. Biochar-based nanocomposites: a sustainable tool in wastewater bioremediation Aquananotechnology 2021 Elsevier 185 200 10.1016/B978-0-12-821141-0.00023-9
33 Mohan D. Charles P. Jr. Todd E.M. Sustainable Biochar for Water and Wastewater Treatment 2022
34 Mahmoud A.-E.-D. Kathi S. Assessment of biochar application in decontamination of water and wastewater Cost Effective Technologies for Solid Waste and Wastewater Treatment 2022 Elsevier 69 74 10.1016/B978-0-12-822933-0.00009-7
35 Huang J. Zimmerman A.R. Chen H. Gao B. Ball milled biochar effectively removes sulfamethoxazole and sulfapyridine antibiotics from water and wastewater Environ. Pollut. 258 Mar. 2020 113809 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113809
36 Zhang F. Efficiency and mechanisms of Cd removal from aqueous solution by biochar derived from water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) J. Environ. Manag. 153 Apr. 2015 68 73 10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.043
37 Moses T. Vya B. C K. Fna O. Composition of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) plant harvested from the volta lake in Ghana and its potential value as a feed ingredient in rabbit rations Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 9 2 2020 10.17582/journal.aavs/2021/9.2.230.237
38 Pal D.B. Sustainable valorization of water hyacinth waste pollutant via pyrolysis for advance microbial fuel investigation Chemosphere 314 Feb. 2023 137602 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137602
39 Bhattacharya A. Kumar P. Water hyacinth as a potential biofuel crop Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 9 1 2010 112 122
40 Shanab S.M.M. Hanafy E.A. Shalaby E.A. Water hyacinth as non-edible source for biofuel production Waste Biomass Valorization 9 2 Feb. 2018 255 264 10.1007/s12649-016-9816-6
41 Harun I. Pushiri H. Amirul-Aiman A.J. Zulkeflee Z. Invasive Water Hyacinth: Ecology, Impacts and Prospects for the Rural Economy Aug. 01, 2021 MDPI AG 10.3390/plants10081613
42 Ajithram A. Winowlin Jappes J.T. Chithra G.K. Daphne R. Serious environmental threat water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) plant natural fibress: different extraction methods and morphological properties for polymer composite applications Mater Today Proc Mar. 2023 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.431
43 Zhang Y.-Y. Zhang D.-Y. Barrett S.C.H. Genetic uniformity characterizes the invasive spread of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), a clonal aquatic plant Mol. Ecol. 19 9 May 2010 1774 1786 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04609.x 20529068
44 Mujingni Epse Cho J. Quantification of the impacts of water hyacinth on riparian communities in Cameroon and assessment of an appropriate method of control : the case of the Wouri River Basin 2012 [Online]. Available: https://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations
45 Lubembe S.I. Water hyacinth, an invasive species in Africa: a literature review East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources 6 1 Jul. 2023 198 216 10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1293
46 Djihouessi M.B. Olokotum M. Chabi L.C. Mouftaou F. Aina M.P. Paradigm Shifts for Sustainable Management of Water Hyacinth in Tropical Ecosystems: A Review and Overview of Current Challenges Apr. 01, 2023 Elsevier B.V. 10.1016/j.envc.2023.100705
47 Villamagna A.M. Murphy B.R. Ecological and Socio-Economic Impacts of Invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): A Review 2010 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x
48 A. M. Mailu, “Biological and Integrated Control of Water Hyacinth,” ACI. [Online]. Available: http://hdl.handle.net/1834/1292.
49 Kateregga E. Sterner T. Lake Victoria fish stocks and the effects of water hyacinth J. Environ. Dev. 18 1 Mar. 2009 62 78 10.1177/1070496508329467
50 Bicudo D.D.C. Fonseca B.M. Bini L.M. Crossetti L.O. Bicudo C.E.D.M. Araujo-Jesus T. Undesirable side-effects of water hyacinth control in a shallow tropical reservoir Freshw. Biol. 52 6 Jun. 2007 1120 1133 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01738.x
51 Nega D.T. Ramayya V.A. Afessa M.M. Manenti F. Invasive Water Hyacinth Challenges, Opportunities, Mitigation, and Policy Implications: the Case of the Nile Basin 2022 10.5772/intechopen.106779
52 Mironga J.M. Mathooko J.M. Onywere S.M. The Effect of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) Infestation on Phytoplankton Productivity in Lake Naivasha and the Status of Control 2011
53 Patel S. Threats, management and envisaged utilizations of aquatic weed Eichhornia crassipes: an overview Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 11 3 Sep. 2012 249 259 10.1007/s11157-012-9289-4
54 Basaula R. Sharma H.P. Sapkota K. The Invasion of Water Hyacinth and its Impact on Diversity of Macro-Invertebrates in the Lake Cluster of Pokhara Valley May 2022 Prithvi Academic Journal Nepal 1 16 10.3126/paj.v5i1.45035
55 Maulidyna A. Review: economic impacts of the invasive species water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): case study of rawapening lake, central java, Indonesia International Journal of Bonorowo Wetlands 11 1 Jun. 2021 10.13057/bonorowo/w110103
56 Basaula R. Sharma H.P. Belant J.L. Sapkota K. Invasive water hyacinth limits globally threatened waterbird abundance and diversity at lake cluster of pokhara valley, Nepal Sustainability 13 24 Dec. 2021 13700 10.3390/su132413700
57 Sharma A. Aggarwal N.K. Saini A. Yadav A. Beyond biocontrol: water hyacinth-Opportunities and challenges Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 9 1 2016 26 48 10.3923/jest.2016.26.48
58 Amalina F. Razak A.S.A. Krishnan S. Zularisam A.W. Nasrullah M. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for organic contaminants removal in water – a review Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 7 Aug. 2022 100092 10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100092
59 Huynh A.T. Chen Y.-C. Tran B.N.T. A small-scale study on removal of heavy metals from contaminated water using water hyacinth Processes 9 10 Oct. 2021 1802 10.3390/pr9101802
60 Churko E.E. Nhamo L. Chitakira M. Phytoremediation capacity of water hyacinth (Eichhornia cras-sipes) as nature-based solution for contaminants and physico-chemical characterization of Lake Water Water (Basel) 2023 10.20944/preprints202305.1051.v1
61 Harun I. Pushiri H. Amirul-Aiman A.J. Zulkeflee Z. Invasive water hyacinth: ecology, impacts and prospects for the rural economy Plants 10 8 Aug. 2021 1613 10.3390/plants10081613 34451658
62 Basaula R. Sharma H.P. Belant J.L. Sapkota K. Invasive water hyacinth limits globally threatened waterbird abundance and diversity at lake cluster of pokhara valley, Nepal Sustainability 13 24 Dec. 2021 13700 10.3390/su132413700
63 Basaula R. Sharma H.P. Paudel B.R. Kunwar P.S. Sapkota K. Effects of invasive water hyacinth on fish diversity and abundance in the Lake Cluster of Pokhara Valley, Nepal Glob Ecol Conserv 46 Oct. 2023 e02565 10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02565
64 Sharma A.K. Sharma V. Sharma V. Sharma J.K. Singh R. Review article multifaceted potential of EICHHORNIA crassipes (water hyacinth) ladened with numerous value aided and therapeutic properties Plant Arch 20 2 2020 2059 2065
65 Dersseh M.G. Melesse A.M. Tilahun S.A. Abate M. Dagnew D.C. Water hyacinth: review of its impacts on hydrology and ecosystem services—lessons for management of Lake Tana Extreme Hydrology and Climate Variability 2019 Elsevier 237 251 10.1016/B978-0-12-815998-9.00019-1
66 Ashton P.J. Scott W.E. Steÿn D.J. The chemical control of water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (MART.) SOLMS] Water Pollution Research and Development 1981 Elsevier 865 882 10.1016/B978-1-4832-8438-5.50062-5
67 Karouach F. A comprehensive evaluation of the existing approaches for controlling and managing the proliferation of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): review Front. Environ. Sci. 9 Feb 2022 10.3389/fenvs.2021.767871
68 Charudattan R. Integrated control of waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) with a pathogen, insects, and herbicides Weed Sci. 34 S1 Jun. 1986 26 30 10.1017/S0043174500068338
69 Bhattacharya A. Haldar S. Chatterjee P.K. Geographical Distribution and Physiology of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipses)-The Invasive Hydrophyte and a Biomass for Producing Xylitol 2014
70 Shanab S.M.M. Shalaby E.A. Lightfoot D.A. El-Shemy H.A. Allelopathic effects of water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes] PLoS One 5 10 Oct. 2010 e13200 10.1371/journal.pone.0013200
71 Lugo A. Effect on the planktonic community of the chemical program used to control water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes) in Guadalupe Dam, Mexico Aquat Ecosyst Health Manag 1 3–4 Jan. 1998 333 343 10.1080/14634989808656928
72 Dagno K. Lahlali R. Diourté M. Haïssam Jijakli M. Fungi Occurring on Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Martius] Solms-Laubach) in Niger River in Mali and Their Evaluation as Mycoherbicides 2012
73 Dagno K. Lahlali R. Diourté M. Haïssam Jijakli M. Present Status of the Development of Mycoherbicides against Water Hyacinth: Successes and Challenges. A Review 2012
74 Jones R.W. Hill J.M. Coetzee J.A. Hill M.P. The contributions of biological control to reduced plant size and biomass of water hyacinth populations Hydrobiologia 807 1 Feb. 2018 377 388 10.1007/s10750-017-3413-y
75 Bhandari G. Nano-biochar: recent progress, challenges, and opportunities for sustainable environmental remediation Front. Microbiol. 14 Jul 2023 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1214870
76 Singh Yadav S.P. Biochar application: a sustainable approach to improve soil health J Agric Food Res 11 Mar. 2023 100498 10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100498
77 Yi Y. Magnetic biochar for environmental remediation: a review Bioresour. Technol. 298 Feb. 2020 122468 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122468
78 Bruckman V.J. Pumpanen J. Biochar Use in Global Forests: Opportunities and Challenges 2019 427 453 10.1016/B978-0-444-63998-1.00017-3
79 Zhao P. Palviainen M. Köster K. Berninger F. Bruckman V.J. Pumpanen J. Effects of biochar on fluxes and turnover of carbon in boreal forest soils Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 83 1 Jan. 2019 126 136 10.2136/sssaj2018.04.0149
80 Ramadan M.M. Amal Asran Abd-Elsalam K.A. Micro/nano biochar for sustainable plant health: present status and future prospects Carbon Nanomaterials for Agri-Food and Environmental Applications 2020 Elsevier 323 357 10.1016/B978-0-12-819786-8.00016-5
81 Ahmed N.N. Maximizing the Potential of Biochar Production from Low-Value Forest Biomass in Michigan: Assessing Economic and Environmental Impacts 2023 MSc, Michigan State University, Michigan [Online]. Available: https://www.proquest.com/openview/553f2315581afe7ccac85df5337e540f/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
82 Alfei S. Pandoli O.G. Bamboo-based biochar: a still too little-studied black gold and its current applications J Xenobiot 14 1 Mar. 2024 416 451 10.3390/jox14010026 38535501
83 Balmuk G. Videgain M. Manyà J.J. Duman G. Yanik J. Effects of pyrolysis temperature and pressure on agronomic properties of biochar J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 169 Jan. 2023 105858 10.1016/j.jaap.2023.105858
84 Xiang W. Biochar technology in wastewater treatment: a critical review Chemosphere 252 Aug. 2020 126539 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126539
85 Mahmoud A.W.M. Samy M.M. Sany H. Eid R.R. Rashad H.M. Abdeldaym E.A. Nanopotassium, nanosilicon, and biochar applications improve potato salt tolerance by modulating photosynthesis, water status, and biochemical constituents Sustainability 14 2 Jan. 2022 723 10.3390/su14020723
86 Liu X. Legacy effects of slag and biochar application on greenhouse gas emissions mitigation in paddy field: a three-year study Sci. Total Environ. 906 Jan. 2024 167442 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167442
87 Makavana J.M. Sarsavadia P.N. Chauhan P.M. Dulawat M.S. Dobariya U.D. Yadav R. A review pyrolysis: different agricultural residues and their bio-char characteristics International Journal of Environment and Climate Change Sep. 2021 80 88 10.9734/ijecc/2021/v11i730442
88 Sonowal S. Koch N. Sarma H. Prasad K. Prasad R. A review on magnetic nanobiochar with their use in environmental remediation and high-value applications J. Nanomater. 2023 Jan. 2023 1 14 10.1155/2023/4881952
89 Zuhara S. Mackey H.R. Al-Ansari T. McKay G. A review of prospects and current scenarios of biomass co-pyrolysis for water treatment Biomass Convers Biorefin Jul. 2022 10.1007/s13399-022-03011-0
90 Yaashikaa P.R. Kumar P.S. Varjani S. Saravanan A. A critical review on the biochar production techniques, characterization, stability and applications for circular bioeconomy Biotechnology Reports 28 Dec. 2020 e00570 10.1016/j.btre.2020.e00570
91 Rawat A.P. Kumar V. Singh D.P. A combined effect of adsorption and reduction potential of biochar derived from Mentha plant waste on removal of methylene blue dye from aqueous solution Separ. Sci. Technol. 55 5 Mar. 2020 907 921 10.1080/01496395.2019.1580732
92 Nagaraju K. Prasad T.N.V.K.V. Naidu M.V.S. Chari M.S. Ramu Y.R. Murthy B.R. Exploring the benefits of rice husk waste: synthesis and characterization of biochar and nanobiochar for agricultural and environmental sustainability International Journal of Environment and Climate Change 13 9 Jul. 2023 715 725 10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i92292
93 Muoghalu C.C. Biochar as a novel technology for treatment of onsite domestic wastewater: a critical review Front. Environ. Sci. 11 Feb 2023 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1095920
94 Patel M.R. Panwar N.L. Biochar from agricultural crop residues: environmental, production, and life cycle assessment overview Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 19 Nov. 2023 200173 10.1016/j.rcradv.2023.200173
95 Elbasiouny H. The effect of microplastic pollution on soil, plants and soil microbes and its remediation Egypt. J. Soil Sci. 62 4 Dec. 2022 331 340 10.21608/ejss.2022.156330.1526
96 Xia H. Biochar-N fertilizer interaction increases N utilization efficiency by modifying soil C/N component under N fertilizer deep placement modes Chemosphere 286 Jan. 2022 131594 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131594
97 Bui T.H. Zuverza-Mena N. Dimkpa C.O. Nason S.L. Thomas S. White J.C. PFAS remediation in soil: An evaluation of carbon-based materials for contaminant sequestration Environmental Pollution 344 Mar. 2024 123335 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123335 38211874
98 Martínez-Gómez Á. Poveda J. Escobar C. Overview of the use of biochar from main cereals to stimulate plant growth Front. Plant Sci. 13 Aug 2022 10.3389/fpls.2022.912264
99 Wijitkosum S. Jiwnok P. Effect of biochar on Chinese kale and carbon storage in an agricultural area on a high rise building AIMS Agriculture and Food 4 1 2019 177 193 10.3934/agrfood.2019.1.177
100 Bayda S. Adeel M. Tuccinardi T. Cordani M. Rizzolio F. The History of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: from Chemical-Physical Applications to Nanomedicine 2020 10.3390/molecules25010112
101 Côrtes L.N. Biochars from animal wastes as alternative materials to treat colored effluents containing basic red 9 J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 7 6 Dec. 2019 103446 10.1016/j.jece.2019.103446
102 Bushra B. Remya N. Biochar from pyrolysis of rice husk biomass—characteristics, modification and environmental application Biomass Convers Biorefin 14 5 Mar. 2024 5759 5770 10.1007/s13399-020-01092-3
103 Nie C. Impact of sugarcane bagasse-derived biochar on heavy metal availability and microbial activity: a field study Chemosphere 200 Jun. 2018 274 282 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.02.134 29494908
104 AnupamaKhare P. A comprehensive evaluation of inherent properties and applications of nano-biochar prepared from different methods and feedstocks J. Clean. Prod. 320 Oct. 2021 128759 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128759
105 Ahmed R. Differential response of nano zinc sulphate with other conventional sources of Zn in mitigating salinity stress in rice grown on saline-sodic soil Chemosphere 327 Jun. 2023 138479 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138479
106 Naghdi M. Taheran M. Brar S.K. Kermanshahi-pour A. Verma M. Surampalli R.Y. Immobilized laccase on oxygen functionalized nanobiochars through mineral acids treatment for removal of carbamazepine Sci. Total Environ. 584–585 Apr. 2017 393 401 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.021
107 Rahman M.A. Jahiruddin M. Kader M.A. Islam M.R. Solaiman Z.M. Sugarcane bagasse biochar increases soil carbon sequestration and yields of maize and groundnut in charland ecosystem Arch. Agron Soil Sci. 68 10 Aug. 2022 1338 1351 10.1080/03650340.2021.1892651
108 Jiang S. Copper and zinc adsorption by softwood and hardwood biochars under elevated sulphate-induced salinity and acidic pH conditions Chemosphere 142 Jan. 2016 64 71 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.06.079 26206747
109 Najmudeen T.M. Arakkal Febna M.A. Rojith G. Zacharia P.U. Characterisation of biochar from water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and the effects of biochar on the growth of fish and paddy in integrated culture systems J. Coast Res. 86 sp1 Nov. 2019 225 10.2112/SI86-033.1
110 Chemtai C. Ngigi A.N. Kengara F.O. Ciprofloxacin sorption by non-activated and activated biochar derived from millet husks and water hyacinth Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment 5 Mar. 2024 100075 10.1016/j.scenv.2024.100075
111 Bordoloi S. Assessment of hydro-mechanical properties of biochar-amended soil sourced from two contrasting feedstock Biomass Convers Biorefin Aug. 2020 10.1007/s13399-020-00946-0
112 Shan D. Preparation of ultrafine magnetic biochar and activated carbon for pharmaceutical adsorption and subsequent degradation by ball milling J. Hazard Mater. 305 Mar. 2016 156 163 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.11.047 26685062
113 Sherif El-Eskandarany M. Fabrication of nanocrystalline WC and nanocomposite WC–MgO refractory materials at room temperature J. Alloys Compd. 296 1–2 Jan. 2000 175 182 10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00508-3
114 Ramanayaka S. Vithanage M. Alessi D.S. Liu W.-J. Jayasundera A.C.A. Ok Y.S. Nanobiochar: production, properties, and multifunctional applications Environ. Sci.: Nano 7 11 2020 3279 3302 10.1039/D0EN00486C
115 Ramanayaka S. Tsang D.C.W. Hou D. Ok Y.S. Vithanage M. Green synthesis of graphitic nanobiochar for the removal of emerging contaminants in aqueous media Sci. Total Environ. 706 Mar. 2020 135725 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135725
116 Akter A. Nadim Md K.A. Mitu M. Reza Md S. Alim S.M.A. Islam Md M. Water hyacinth: potential applications for environmental sustainability and socio-economic development Journal of Agroforestry and Environment 16 1 Mar. 2023 31 39 10.55706/jae1605
117 Liu G. Formation and physicochemical characteristics of nano biochar: insight into chemical and colloidal stability Environ. Sci. Technol. 52 18 Sep. 2018 10369 10379 10.1021/acs.est.8b01481 30141917
118 Tian H. Optimizing the gasification reactivity of biochar: the composition, structure and kinetics of biochar derived from biomass lignocellulosic components and their interactions during gasification process Fuel 324 Sep. 2022 124709 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124709
119 Ma H. Hu Y. Wu J. Kobayashi T. Xu K.-Q. Kuramochi H. Enhanced anaerobic digestion of tar solution from rice husk thermal gasification with hybrid upflow anaerobic sludge-biochar bed reactor Bioresour. Technol. 347 Mar. 2022 126688 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126688
120 Liu J. Preparation, environmental application and prospect of biochar-supported metal nanoparticles: a review J. Hazard Mater. 388 Apr. 2020 122026 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122026
121 Amalina F. Syukor Abd Razak A. Krishnan S. Sulaiman H. Zularisam A.W. Nasrullah M. Advanced techniques in the production of biochar from lignocellulosic biomass and environmental applications Cleaner Materials 6 Dec. 2022 100137 10.1016/j.clema.2022.100137
122 Ayanda O.I. Ajayi T. Asuwaju F.P. Eichhornia crassipes (mart.) solms: uses, challenges, threats, and prospects Sci. World J. 2020 Jul. 2020 1 12 10.1155/2020/3452172
123 Begum S.L.R. Himaya S.M.M.S. Afreen S.M.M.S. Potential of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) as compost and its effect on soil and plant properties: a review Agricultural Reviews Nov. 2021 10.18805/ag.R-184 Of
124 Das S.P. Gupta A. Das D. Goyal A. Enhanced bioethanol production from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) by statistical optimization of fermentation process parameters using Taguchi orthogonal array design Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 109 Apr. 2016 174 184 10.1016/j.ibiod.2016.01.008
125 Gupta P. Roy S. Mahindrakar A.B. Treatment of water using water hyacinth, water lettuce and vetiver grass - a review Resour. Environ. 2 5 Dec. 2012 202 215 10.5923/j.re.20120205.04
126 Ahmed R.H. Badawi H.M. Ali A.S. Fayez M. Growth performance of rhizobacteria on water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) juices and dehydrated powder The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 44 1 Mar. 2018 1 7 10.1016/j.ejar.2018.01.002
127 Lara-Serrano J.S. Physicochemical characterization of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (mart.) solms) Bioresources 11 3 Jul. 2016 10.15376/biores.11.3.7214-7223
128 Su W. Sun Q. Xia M. Wen Z. Yao Z. The resource utilization of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [mart.] solms) and its challenges Resources 7 3 Aug. 2018 46 10.3390/resources7030046
129 Xu R. Qafoku N.P. Van Ranst E. Li J. Jiang J. Adsorption Properties of Subtropical and Tropical Variable Charge Soils: Implications from Climate Change and Biochar Amendment 2016 1 58 10.1016/bs.agron.2015.09.001
130 Spokas K.A. Biochar: a synthesis of its agronomic impact beyond carbon sequestration J. Environ. Qual. 41 4 Jul. 2012 973 989 10.2134/jeq2011.0069 22751040
131 Gupta D.K. Role of biochar in carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas mitigation Biochar Applications in Agriculture and Environment Management 2020 Springer International Publishing Cham 141 165 10.1007/978-3-030-40997-5_7
132 Manju An assessment of cadmium removal from simulated waste water using leftover biomass of water hyacinth immobilized via Emericella nidulans Journal of Applied Life Sciences International 8 3 Jan. 2016 1 10 10.9734/JALSI/2016/27845
133 Taye A. Mehretie S.M. Admassie S. Adsorption of lead(II) ions using KOH-activated carbon derived from water hyacinth Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 37 6 Sep. 2023 1369 1382 10.4314/bcse.v37i6.6
134 Gaurav G.K. Mehmood T. Cheng L. Klemeš J.J. Shrivastava D.K. Water hyacinth as a biomass: a review J. Clean. Prod. 277 Dec. 2020 122214 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122214
135 Elbehiry F. Using biochar and nanobiochar of water hyacinth and black tea waste in metals removal from aqueous solutions Sustainability 14 16 Aug. 2022 10118 10.3390/su141610118
136 Jiang J. Highly ordered macroporous woody biochar with ultra-high carbon content as supercapacitor electrodes Electrochim. Acta 113 Dec. 2013 481 489 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.121
137 Nandiyanto A.B.D. Progress in the utilization of water hyacinth as effective biomass material Environ. Dev. Sustain. Jul. 2023 10.1007/s10668-023-03655-6
138 Fiandini M. Education of Water Hyacinth 2023
139 Wolfgeher A.L. Effects of Prescribed Fire on Forest Soil Properties in the Ozark Highlands 2020 University of Missouri--Columbia Missouri [Online]. Available: https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/83861/WolfgeherAmanda.pdf?sequence=1
140 Vidya S. Girish L. Water Hyacinth as a green manure for organic farming International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences 2 6 2014 65 72 [Online]. Available: www.impactjournals.us
141 Bottezini L. Dick D.P. Wisniewski A. Knicker H. Carregosa I.S.C. Phosphorus species and chemical composition of water hyacinth biochars produced at different pyrolysis temperature Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 14 Jun. 2021 100684 10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100684
142 Sci I.J.T. Lekshmi N.C.J.P. Viveka S. Hyacinth compost as a source of nutrient for Abelmoschus esculentus Indian J. Sci. Technol. 4 3 2011 25 29 [Online]. Available: http://www.indjst.org
143 Adesina G.O. Akanbi W.B. Olabode O.S. Akintoye O. Effect of water hyacinth and neem based composts on growth, fruit yield and quality of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Afr. J. Agric. Res. 6 31 Dec. 2011 6477 6484 10.5897/AJAR11.922
144 Suleiman M. Khadija A.Y. Nasiru Y. Garba A.A. Alhassan M. Bello H.J. Proximate, minerals and anti-nutritional composition of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) grass Earthline Journal of Chemical Sciences Dec. 2019 51 59 10.34198/ejcs.3120.5159
145 Khan H.A. A performance evaluation study of nano-biochar as a potential slow-release nano-fertilizer from wheat straw residue for sustainable agriculture Chemosphere 285 Dec. 2021 131382 10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2021.131382
146 Huang J.-R. Chen X. Hu B.-B. Cheng J.-R. Zhu M.-J. Bioaugmentation combined with biochar to enhance thermophilic hydrogen production from sugarcane bagasse Bioresour. Technol. 348 Mar. 2022 126790 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126790
147 Iwuozor K.O. Chizitere Emenike E. Ighalo J.O. Omoarukhe F.O. Omuku P.E. George Adeniyi A. A Review on the thermochemical conversion of sugarcane bagasse into biochar Cleaner Materials 6 Dec. 2022 100162 10.1016/j.clema.2022.100162
148 Chaturvedi K. Bamboo for producing charcoal and biochar for versatile applications Biomass Convers Biorefin Feb. 2023 10.1007/s13399-022-03715-3
149 Vijayaraghavan K. Balasubramanian R. Application of pinewood waste-derived biochar for the removal of nitrate and phosphate from single and binary solutions Chemosphere 278 Sep. 2021 130361 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130361
150 Yadav A. Yadav K. Abd-Elsalam K.A. Nanofertilizers: types, delivery and advantages in agricultural sustainability Agrochemicals 2 2 Jun. 2023 296 336 10.3390/agrochemicals2020019
151 Zulfiqar F. Navarro M. Ashraf M. Akram N.A. Munné-Bosch S. Nanofertilizer use for sustainable agriculture: advantages and limitations Plant Sci. 289 Dec. 2019 110270 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.110270
152 Raliya R. Saharan V. Dimkpa C. Biswas P. Nanofertilizer for precision and sustainable agriculture: current state and future perspectives J. Agric. Food Chem. 66 26 Jul. 2018 6487 6503 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b02178 28835103
153 Jiang J. Yuan M. Xu R. Bish D.L. Mobilization of phosphate in variable-charge soils amended with biochars derived from crop straws Soil Tillage Res. 146 Mar. 2015 139 147 10.1016/j.still.2014.10.009
154 Kianfar E. Production, Structural properties Nano biochar and Effects Nano biochar in soil: a review Egypt. J. Chem. 0 0 May 2022 10.21608/ejchem.2022.131162.5772 0–0
155 Rop K. Karuku G.N. Mbui D. Michira I. Njomo N. Formulation of slow release NPK fertilizer (cellulose-graft-poly(acrylamide)/nano-hydroxyapatite/soluble fertilizer) composite and evaluating its N mineralization potential Ann. Agric. Sci. (Cairo) 63 2 Dec. 2018 163 172 10.1016/j.aoas.2018.11.001
156 Kalaivani M. Ravi S. Green synthesis of ZnO NPs and CdO-ZnO nanocomposites using aqueous extract of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) characterization, structural and nano-fertilizer using application Indian J. Sci. Technol. 16 25 Jul. 2023 1918 1926 10.17485/IJST/v16i25.180
157 Mikula K. Controlled release micronutrient fertilizers for precision agriculture – a review Sci. Total Environ. 712 Apr. 2020 136365 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136365
158 Izydorczyk G. Sienkiewicz-Cholewa U. Baśladyńska S. Kocek D. Mironiuk M. Chojnacka K. New environmentally friendly bio-based micronutrient fertilizer by biosorption: from laboratory studies to the field Sci. Total Environ. 710 Mar. 2020 136061 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136061
159 Michalak I. Witek-Krowiak A. Chojnacka K. Bhatnagar A. Advances in biosorption of microelements – the starting point for the production of new agrochemicals Rev. Inorg. Chem. 35 3 Sep. 2015 115 133 10.1515/revic-2015-0003
160 Bai S.H. Biochar effects on nutrient leaching Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 489 511 10.4324/9781003297673-19
161 Islam T. Li Y. Cheng H. Biochars and engineered biochars for water and soil remediation: a review Sustainability 13 17 Sep. 2021 9932 10.3390/su13179932
162 Guo M. Song W. Tian J. Biochar-facilitated soil remediation: mechanisms and efficacy variations Front. Environ. Sci. 8 Oct. 2020 10.3389/fenvs.2020.521512
163 Van Wilgen B.W. Nel J.L. Rouget M. Invasive alien plants and South African rivers: a proposed approach to the prioritization of control operations Freshw. Biol. 52 4 Apr. 2007 711 723 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2006.01711.x
164 Degaga A.H. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) biology and its impacts on ecosystem, biodiversity, economy and human well-being J. Life Sci. Biomed. 8 6 2018 94 100
165 Su W. Sun Q. Xia M. Wen Z. Yao Z. The resource utilization of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [mart.] solms) and its challenges Resources 7 3 Aug. 2018 46 10.3390/resources7030046
166 Goswami L. Nano-biochar as a sustainable catalyst for anaerobic digestion: a synergetic closed-loop approach Catalysts 12 2 Feb. 2022 186 10.3390/catal12020186
167 Lehmann J. Persistence of biochar Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 277 311 10.4324/9781003297673-11
168 Joseph S. How biochar works, and when it doesn't: a review of mechanisms controlling soil and plant responses to biochar GCB Bioenergy 13 11 Nov. 2021 1731 1764 10.1111/gcbb.12885
169 Cowie A. Azzi E. Weng Z.H. Woolf D. Biochar, greenhouse gas accounting, and climate change mitigation Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 759 784 10.4324/9781003297673-30
170 Wang J. Manning D.A.C. Stirling R. Lopez-Capel E. Werner D. Biochar benefits carbon off-setting in blue-green infrastructure soils - a lysimeter study J. Environ. Manag. 325 Jan. 2023 116639 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116639
171 Soil Science Society of America Glossary of Soil Science Terms 1996 Author Madison, WI
172 Gao X. Masiello C.A. Biochar effects on water availability Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 513 530 10.4324/9781003297673-20
173 Xia C. Remediation competence of nanoparticles amalgamated biochar (nanobiochar/nanocomposite) on pollutants: a review Environ. Res. 218 Feb. 2023 114947 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114947
174 Liu Z. Modified biochar: synthesis and mechanism for removal of environmental heavy metals Carbon Research 1 1 Dec. 2022 8 10.1007/s44246-022-00007-3
175 Karungi E. Water Hyacinth Invasion Threatens Uganda's Fishing Economy Apr. 24, 2024 The Ankole Times [Online]. Available: https://theankoletimes.co.ug/news/business/fisheries/water-hyacinth-invasion-threatens-ugandas-fishing-economy/
176 Maulidyna A. Economic impacts of the invasive species water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): case study of Rawapening Lake, Central Java, Indonesia International Journal of Bonorowo Wetlands 11 1 Jun. 2021 10.13057/bonorowo/w110103
177 Al-Juthery H.W.A. Lahmod N.R. Al-Taee R.A.H.G. Intelligent, nano-fertilizers: a new technology for improvement nutrient use efficiency (article review) IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 735 1 Apr. 2021 012086 10.1088/1755-1315/735/1/012086
178 Rawal N. Pande K.R. Shrestha R. Vista S.P. Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as affected by NPK fertilization PLoS One 17 1 Jan. 2022 e0262771 10.1371/journal.pone.0262771
179 Khan M.Z.H. Islam M.R. Nahar N. Al-Mamun M.R. Khan M.A.S. Matin M.A. Synthesis and characterization of nanozeolite based composite fertilizer for sustainable release and use efficiency of nutrients Heliyon 7 1 Jan. 2021 e06091 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06091
180 Meena D.S. Gautam C. Prakash Patidar O. Meena H.M. Nano-fertilizers is a new way to increase nutrients use efficiency in crop production Int. J. Agric. Sci. 9 7 2017 3831 3833 [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344318260
181 Joseph S. Shackley S. de la Rosa R.A. Cornelissen G. O'Toole A. Stuve E. Economics of biochar production and utilization Biochar for Environmental Management 2024 Routledge London 819 840 10.4324/9781003297673-33
182 Owsianiak M. Lindhjem H. Cornelissen G. Hale S.E. Sørmo E. Sparrevik M. Environmental and economic impacts of biochar production and agricultural use in six developing and middle-income countries Sci. Total Environ. 755 Feb. 2021 142455 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142455
183 Dutta B. Raghavan V. A life cycle assessment of environmental and economic balance of biochar systems in Quebec International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 5 2–3 Jul. 2014 106 10.1007/s40095-014-0106-4
184 Mazarji M. Effect of nanomaterials on remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-contaminated soils: a review J. Environ. Manag. 284 Apr. 2021 112023 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112023
185 Mazarji M. Realizing united nations sustainable development goals for greener remediation of heavy metals-contaminated soils by biochar: emerging trends and future directions Sustainability 13 24 Dec. 2021 13825 10.3390/su132413825
186 Wainger L.A. Evidence-based economic analysis demonstrates that ecosystem service benefits of water hyacinth management greatly exceed research and control costs PeerJ 6 May 2018 e4824 10.7717/peerj.4824 29844976
187 Mahanta N. Dambale A. Rajkhowa M. Nutrient use efficiency through Nano fertilizers Int. J. Chem. Stud. 7 3 2019 2839 2842 [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344255688
188 Dimkpa C.O. Fugice J. Singh U. Lewis T.D. Development of fertilizers for enhanced nitrogen use efficiency – trends and perspectives Sci. Total Environ. 731 Aug. 2020 139113 10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2020.139113
189 Africa Fertilizer, “Nigeria Fertilizer Dashboard,” Africa Fertilizer Report. Accessed: June. 9, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://vifaanigeria.org/#/nigeria/use.
190 Kopittke P.M. Lombi E. Wang P. Schjoerring J.K. Husted S. Nanomaterials as fertilizers for improving plant mineral nutrition and environmental outcomes Environ. Sci.: Nano 6 12 2019 3513 3524 10.1039/C9EN00971J
