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Ultrason Sonochem
Ultrason Sonochem
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
1350-4177
1873-2828
Elsevier

S1350-4177(24)00288-8
10.1016/j.ultsonch.2024.107040
107040
Original Research Article
Effect of ultrasonic pretreatment on textural properties and sensory attributes of cooked faba beans
Salehi Fakhreddin F.Salehi@Basu.ac.ir
⁎
Amiri Mostafa
Ghazvineh Sara
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Industry, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
⁎ Corresponding author. F.Salehi@Basu.ac.ir
22 8 2024
11 2024
22 8 2024
110 10704030 7 2024
16 8 2024
20 8 2024
© 2024 The Author(s)
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Graphical abstract

Schematic of ultrasound pretreatment, hot-air drying, and cooking process of faba beans.

Drying process extends the shelf-life of fresh faba beans and makes them available all year round. Dried and cooked faba beans are used to make a variety of traditional food products. Ultrasonic pretreatment, as a modern food processing technology, can shorten the drying time of fresh legumes and improve the quality and sensory properties of products. So, the present study aimed to analyze the impact of the ultrasonic treatment process (0, 5, 10, and 15 min, 40  kHz, and 150 W) on the mass transfer rate, drying time, and effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) of fresh faba beans. Also, the effect of ultrasonic treatment on textural properties and sensory attributes of cooked faba beans was studied. By using the ultrasonic process, the rate of water extraction from fresh faba beans, and thus their dehydration rate, can be increased. With increasing the duration of ultrasonic pretreatment from 0 to 15 min, the drying time of fresh faba beans decreased from 250 min to 150 min (p < 0.05). The Deff was calculated by Fick’s second law, and it significantly increased from 0.70 × 10−9 m2 s−1 to 1.05 × 10−9 m2 s−1 when the sonication duration was extended from 0 to 15 min (p < 0.05). The Page model best fitted the drying kinetic of fresh faba beans with a coefficient of determination (r) > 0.9968, and the sum of squared error (SSE) and root mean squared error (RMSE) were also closer to zero compared to other models. The rehydration ratio of dried faba beans (after cooking) significantly increased from 308.4 % to 327.1 % with the extension of processing time from 0 to 15 min (p < 0.05). The maximum and minimum crust hardness and texture firmness values were for the untreated and sonicated samples for 15 min, respectively. The sonication increased the sensory acceptance of the cooked faba beans and the highest appearance, odor, texture, flavor, and overall acceptance were for the 10 min sonicated faba beans.

Keywords

Drying time
Hardness
Page model
Rehydration ratio
Sonication
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pmc1 Introduction

The nutritional value of legumes as a source of proteins and carbohydrates in the diet is undeniable [1], [2]. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a versatile legume grown in low-temperature regions and is widely used for food and feed in developing countries [3]. The Vicia faba is currently the third most important legume species after peas and beans, making for 7.5 % of European and 1.2 % of the worldwide production of all legumes grown for seeds. The species includes seed varieties known as: faba bean, field bean, broad bean, Windsor bean, fava bean, horse bean, and hortic bean [1], [4]. Faba bean is cultivated for its high protein content and relatively abundant seeds, which under favorable conditions can yield up to 4 tons per hectare [5]. Mature faba beans contain about 40 % starch, 26–34 % protein, 15–24 % dietary fiber, and 2–4 % crude fat [3]. Compared to soy flour, faba bean protein contains the same amount of lysine, but less methionine and cystine. Adverse weather conditions during maturation and seed filling may significantly affect on the protein content in seeds, which in turn may be correlated with the type of faba bean varieties [5]. Fresh faba beans have a short shelf-life. Therefore, one of the best preservation methods is drying, which is carried out using traditional and industrial methods [6], [7], [8]. Dried faba beans are used more often in culinary culture as puree and powder of faba beans and pudding than raw faba beans [9]. As an economical but valuable source of high-quality protein, faba beans are consumed largely in Middle East countries. When prepared at home, faba beans are soaked in water before cooking [10]. In a study, the effects of soaking and cooking on the nutritional value and quality characteristics of faba beans were examined by Abdel-Aleem et al. [11]. In this study, the faba bean seeds were soaked in tap water and different brine solutions to speed up the cooking process. The results showed that water absorption values increased as the soaking time increased. Also, cooking time shortened as a result of soaking process and using fresh water for cooking was the best treatment to decrease cooking time and improve the nutritional value and quality attributes of cooked faba beans. The aim of Bello-Pérez et al. [1] study was to investigate the in vitro starch bioavailability of fresh and sun-dried faba beans after cooking and the effect of cold storage on starch digestibility. Their results showed that the fresh faba beans required a shorter cooking time (25 min) than dried beans (158 min). Also, the cooked fresh samples had a higher available starch content than cooked dried faba beans.

Ultrasound consists of sound waves with frequencies outside the range of human hearing. This technology is a good alternative to many heat and traditional processes that can compromise the quality of the product [12], [13]. By altering the frequency, ultrasound can employ for many industrial applications including food, forming microchannels on the surface of the food. The employ of ultrasound as a treatment is an appropriate non-thermal technique to improve productivity and the use of this process causes less damage to the physicochemical and qualitative properties of the food products [14], [15]. Song et al. [16] confirmed that the ultrasound-assisted blanching pretreatment of perilla leaves resulted in lower total color change (ΔE) values and higher preserved contents of chlorophyll, flavonoids, and rosemary acid. Ultrasonic pretreatment was applied prior to processing of different legumes and acceptable results were reported [17], [18]. Xiong et al. [17] reported that the digestibility of starch and protein in legumes (chickpeas) improved with increasing ultrasound treatment time, which is due to damage to the macrostructure of cell wall with the increase in the ultrasound treatment time, which leads to an increase in the availability of enzymes.

Drying produces a product with a long shelf-life by decreasing the water activity to a level sufficient to inhibit microbial growth, enzymatic reactions, and other destructive reactions [19], [20]. Convective drying is known to have negative impacts on crops. However, the use of ultrasonic pretreatment before hot-air drying can save energy, time, and costs in the drying process [13], [21]. As ultrasound travels through the material, it creates alternating cycles of expansion and contraction (sponge effect). This alternating stress is higher than surface tension of the water within material's capillaries, which can create microscopic channels that help remove the water [22]. The intensification of the drying process with sonication can be achieved by modifying the behavior of the product during drying, by pretreatments such as immersion in a liquid medium with acoustic support, or by using ultrasound in a gaseous medium during the drying process itself [19]. Song et al. [16] investigated the effects of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on mass transfer and quality of hot-air dried perilla leaves. The results showed that the ultrasonic-assisted blanching pretreatment had a higher drying rate than the blanching pretreatment.

Faba beans can be eaten dried, roasted, cooked, or canned [10]. No reports were found on the use of ultrasonic processes for improving the textural properties and sensory attributes of cooked faba beans. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the impact of sonication on the drying time, mass transfer rate, and moisture diffusivity of fresh faba beans. Furthermore, the effect of sonication on the textural properties and sensory attributes of cooked faba beans was studied.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of faba beans

Faba bean pods with medium size and uniform shape were purchased from Hamedan city (Hamedan province, Iran), and they were stored in plastic bags (polyethylene) in a refrigerator at 6 °C. The faba beans were removed from the pods and stored in the refrigerator (at 6 °C).

2.2 Ultrasound pretreatment

To determine the effectiveness of the ultrasonic treatment at different durations, fresh faba beans were ultrasonically treated in water for 0–15 min at 25 °C using an ultrasound water bath (containing distilled water, Backer, vCLEAN1-L6, Iran) at 40 kHz with 150 W power, based on our preliminary tests. In this study, the ultrasonic treatments were conducted for four various durations (0 min, 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min).

2.3 Drying process

After ultrasonic treatment, the faba beans were removed from the ultrasound water bath and the surface water was removed with tissue paper. The faba beans were then dried until reached constant weight in a temperature-controlled oven (55L, Shimaz, Iran), where a drying temperature of 70 ± 2 °C was used (Fig. 1).Fig. 1 Schematic of ultrasound pretreatment, hot-air drying, and cooking process of faba beans.

2.4 Cooking process

After the drying process, to cook the dried faba beans, were placed in glass beakers (250 ml) containing distilled water that was inside a water bath (R.J42, Pars Azma, Iran). The cooking process was carried out for 3 h at a temperature of 90 °C.

2.5 Mathematical modeling of drying data

In order to determine the moisture ratio as a function of drying time of fresh faba beans, 7 different thin-layer drying models were used (Table 1) [23]. Matlab software package (version R2012a) was used for numerical calculations. Parameters were evaluated using nonlinear least squares method. Sum of squared error (SSE), root mean squared error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (r) were used as the main criteria to select the best equation considering the variation of drying curves of the dried faba beans. The best model to describe the thin-layer drying characteristics of the faba beans was selected as the one with the lowest SSE and RMSE and the highest r.Table 1 Mathematical models applied to drying curves of fresh faba beans.

Model number	Model name	Equations	
1	Wang and Singh	MR=1+at+bt2	
2	Henderson and Pabis	MR=aexp(-kt)	
3	Approximation of diffusion	MR=aexp(-kt)+(1-a)exp(-kbt)	
4	Page	MR=exp(-ktn)	
5	Newton	MR=exp(-kt)	
6	Midilli	MR=aexp(-ktn)+bt	
7	Logarithmic	MR=aexp(-kt)+c	
Where MR and t are moisture ratio and treatment time, respectively. Also, the a, b, c, k, and n are empirical constants and coefficients in drying equations.

2.6 Calculation of moisture diffusivity (Deff)

During drying process, it can be assumed that diffusivity, described by Fick’s second law, is the only physical mechanism to transfer the water to the surface. Because there is limited information about the mechanism of moisture transfer and the complexity of the drying process, effective moisture diffusivity is used, which is influenced by the material composition, moisture content, temperature, and material porosity [24]. In this study, because the thickness of the sample was much less than its diameter, the faba bean samples were assumed as a slab. The effective moisture diffusivity coefficient (Deff) of fresh faba beans during drying was estimated following the procedure described by Salehi et al. [25].

2.7 Weight change after cooking (rehydration ratio)

The mass change of dried samples after cooking (or rehydration ratio) was calculated following the procedure described by Salehi et al. [26]. The dried faba beans were submerged in 250 ml glass beakers containing distilled water at 90 °C. The beakers were transferred into the water bath (R.J42, Pars Azma, Iran) and the rehydration process (cooking process) was conducted at 90 °C. The cooked faba beans mass after the rehydration time (3 h) was recorded by a laboratory balance. The rehydration percent of dried faba beans was calculated as the ratio of the weight of cooked faba beans divided by the weight of dried faba beans × 100 [26].

2.8 Texture hardness

A puncture test is usually proposed for measuring the crust and texture hardness of products because it simulates chewing from the point of view of organoleptic attributes. In this study, the puncture test was performed utilizing a cylindrical probe with a diameter of 2.5 mm. The crust hardness (hull) and texture firmness of cooked faba beans were measured by a texture analyzer (Santam, STM-5, Iran). The penetration speed of the probe into the cooked faba beans was considered to be 1 mm/s.

2.9 Sensory evaluation of the fried product

**20 panelists and a 9-point hedonic method were used for estimating the sensory attributes of cooked faba beans. In the sensory evaluation table, the indicators included acceptance of appearance, acceptance of odor, acceptance of texture, acceptance of flavor, and overall acceptance of cooked faba beans. The experiment was conducted at the department of food science and Technology, Bu-Ali Sina University (Hamedan Province). The sensory evaluation was performed using a 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely, 5 = neither like or dislike, and 1 = dislike extremely)

2.10 Statistical analysis

Data were presented in the form of mean ± standard deviation (SD) and statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using IBM SPSS Statistics 21 software (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). Differences were considered significant at p < 0.05. For comparing the average of the observed responses, post- hock Duncan's multiple range test was used at the 95 % confidence level [27], [28].

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Drying time

Faba beans are consumed both fresh and after drying, a process that extends their shelf life [1]. Drying curves are an intuitive method for calculating drying rate and drying time. The impact of ultrasonic duration on the weight loss of fresh faba beans during drying in the hot-air dryer is illustrated in Fig. 2. Based on the drying curves, it was observed that sonicated faba beans dried more quickly than unsonicated faba beans. As expected, the drying rate increased as the extension of processing time increased. As can be seen from this figure, the use of ultrasound enhanced the rate of water extraction from fresh faba beans, resulting in an enhanced drying rate of the samples. Ultrasound waves propagate through solid–liquid systems, resulting in a series of rapid and powerful compressions and expansions, which leads to the breakdown of the diffusion boundary layer. Furthermore, the propagation of sonication energy can weaken the intermolecular forces of bound water and break the internal chemical bonds, thus significantly reducing the mass transfer resistance of moisture [29].Fig. 2 Impact of sonication time on weight loss of fresh faba beans during drying in the hot-air dryer.

Ultrasonic pretreatment, as a modern food processing technology, can shorten the drying time and preserve the color, aroma, and nutrient content of food products [16]. The influence of sonication duration on the drying time of fresh faba beans is illustrated in Fig. 3. The result evidence the improvement of moisture transfer rate with ultrasonic treatment with lower drying time. The drying time of fresh faba beans was shortened by extending the treatment time. When the ultrasonic treatment time was increased from 0 to 15 min, the drying time of fresh faba beans decreased from 250 min to 150 min (p < 0.05). Ultrasonic pretreatment is typically used to reduce drying times and enhance the moisture exchange rate over time [29], [30], [31]. Consistent with the findings of this study, Santos et al. [30] reported that the drying time of carrots was reduced when ultrasonic pretreatment was used. In another study, Oladejo et al. [21] investigated the effect of ultrasonic pretreatment (20 kHz, 600 W, 10 min) on the drying kinetics of yellow cassava during convective hot-air drying. Their results showed that sonicated samples had the shortest drying time, approximately 35 % shorter than the untreated samples.Fig. 3 Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment on drying time of fresh faba beans. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (N=3). Different letters above the columns represent statistically significant differences between the means (p < 0.05).

3.2 Kinetics modeling

The Page equation showed a good fit with the highest r-value (>0.9968) and the lowest SSE, and RMSE values (<0.0090 and <0.0185, respectively) for all pretreatments compared to that of the other equations (Approximation of diffusion, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, Midilli, Newton, and Wang and Singh). So, the moisture loss behavior of fresh faba beans in the hot-air dryer was fitted with this model. The estimated constant parameters for the Page equation including k and n are detailed in Table 2 along with corresponding statistical error values (SSE, r, and RMSE). The SSE, r, and RMSE values for all pretreatments ranged from of 0.0052 to 0.0090, 0.9968 to 0.9977, and 0.0141 to 0.0185, respectively.Table 2 The constants and coefficients of the Page model (MR = exp(−ktn)).

Sonication time	k	n	Sum of squared error	Coefficient of determination	Root mean squared error	
0 min	0.0267	0.6896	0.0052	0.9974	0.0141	
5 min	0.0229	0.7510	0.0072	0.9971	0.0165	
10 min	0.0175	0.8168	0.0090	0.9968	0.0185	
15 min	0.0203	0.8059	0.0069	0.9977	0.0154	
Where, the MR is moisture ratio, and the k and n are coefficients of the Page model (dimensionless).

Fig. 4 shows a comparison of the moisture ratio data fitted testing the Page equation with the experimental results (sonication time = 15 min). The results indicate that the Page equation is suitable for describing the drying kinetics of fresh faba beans. In line with the findings of this research, the results of Maleki et al. [7] research also showed that Page's model is appropriate for investigating and modeling the moisture loss data of faba beans.Fig. 4 Comparison of fitted data by Page model with experimental results of moisture ratio (sonication time = 15 min).

3.3 Effective moisture diffusivity coefficient (Deff)

Drying process extends the shelf-life of fresh faba beans, thus making them available all year round. Additionally, drying process significantly reduces the moisture content, which may further harden the cell walls [1], [7]. Sonication typically has a good influence on increasing moisture diffusivity and shortening the drying time of agricultural products [25], [31]. Loushigam and Shanmugam [18] reported that ultrasonic treatment leads to acoustic cavitation and penetration of the cell walls of legumes and improves the mass transfer rate. In this study, the diffusion equation was derived from Fick’s second law of diffusion and served as an important tool to analyze and quantify the improvement in water removal. The Deff was calculated from the diffusion equation and used to study the effect of ultrasound application on the mass transfer phenomenon. The impact of sonication on the Deff values of fresh faba beans is shown in Fig. 5. The result evidence the improvement of mass transfer rate with ultrasonic treatment with higher moisture diffusivity (higher Deff values). The average Deff values of fresh faba beans during drying in the hot-air dryer significantly increased from 0.70 × 10−9 m2 s−1 to 1.05 × 10−9 m2 s−1 when the extension of processing time was increased from 0 to 15 min (p < 0.05). Acoustic energy can generate vibration velocity and micro-streaming at the interface, breaking the bonds between water molecules and the product surface and minimizing the thickness of the diffusion boundary layer [22]. Consistent with the findings of this study, Zang et al. [29] found that the use of ultrasonic pretreatment can effectively decrease the internal diffusion resistance of materials and enhance the velocity of heat and mass transfer. The results of Song et al. [16] study showed that the Deff values of perilla leaves pretreated by ultrasound-assisted blanching were higher than that of blanched. Drying temperature (30–40 °C) and ultrasonic power + frequency (28  kHz + 60  W, 28  kHz + 100  W, and 40  kHz + 60  W) in an ultrasonic-assisted heat pump dryer were studied by Yang et al. [22] on the drying kinetics of pea seeds. The drying rate of pea seeds was improved by high temperature and ultrasonic treatment, the drying time was shortened, and the Deff value was increased from 3.53 × 10−11 to 5.67 × 10−11 m2/s. Also, the Page model had the greatest potential in modeling the drying curves under different experimental conditions.Fig. 5 Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment on effective moisture diffusivity coefficient of fresh faba beans. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (N=3). Different letters above the columns represent statistically significant differences between the means (p < 0.05).

3.4 Rehydration

Drying involves a number of changes to dried food products, including structural changes and undesirable changes in nutritional values [30], and therefore this section focuses on the product qualities achieved by the cooking operation (rehydration). The impact of sonication duration on the rehydration ratio (after cooking) of dried faba beans is shown in Fig. 6. The result evidence the improvement of rehydration with ultrasonic treatment with higher rehydration rate. The mean rehydration ratio of dried faba beans after cooking significantly increased from 308.4 % to 327.1 % when the extension of processing time increased from 0 to 15 min (p < 0.05). In line with the findings of this study, Santos et al. [30] and Hajimirza and Sharifi [32] reported that the rehydration rate of dried carrots and cantaloupe slices, respectively, were enhanced when ultrasonic pretreatment was used. In a study, Cui et al. [33] investigated the effect of sonication of brown rice at different temperatures (25–55 °C) on cooking time and quality. The brown rice grains were sonicated in water for 30 min and then dried by air before cooking. Their results showed that the sonication caused the natural morphology of rice bran to be lost and water was more easily absorbed by the rice kernel.Fig. 6 Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment on rehydration ratio (weight change after cooking) of dried faba beans. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (N=3). Different letters above the columns represent statistically significant differences between the means (p < 0.05).

3.5 Texture hardness

Ultrasound can induce various physicochemical effects such as cavitation, shear forces, and thermal impacts, which can modify the structural properties of food products [15]. Fig. 7 demonstrates the influence of sonication on the crust or hull hardness of cooked faba beans. As the pretreatment time increased, the shell of cooked faba beans became softer and their hardness decreased. The maximum and the minimum crust hardness values were for the untreated and sonicated samples for 15 min, respectively. In this study, with increasing the extension of processing time from 0 to 15 min, the crust hardness of cooked faba beans significantly decreased from 5.52 N to 3.71 N (p < 0.05).Fig. 7 Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment on crust hardness (hull) of cooked faba beans. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (N=3). Different letters above the columns represent statistically significant differences between the means (p < 0.05).

Texture describes the sensory expression of the matrix and structural properties of food products [34]. Fig. 8 demonstrates the influence of sonication on the texture firmness of cooked faba beans. In this study, the average texture firmness was 3.38 N for the untreated faba beans, while 3.25 N, 2.98 N, and 2.82 N were found for 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min sonicated samples, respectively.Fig. 8 Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment on texture firmness of cooked faba beans. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (N=3). Different letters above the columns represent statistically significant differences between the means (p < 0.05).

3.6 Sensory evaluation

Sensory evaluation studies are essential to select the appropriate drying method and optimize the drying process [34]. Ultrasonic treatment is among the new non-thermal technologies, and its use is increasing day by day. Furthermore, sonication improves the nutritional value of foods and minimizes the loss of flavor and taste [35]. The influence of sonication on the sensory attributes of cooked faba beans was reported in Table 3. The ultrasound pretreatment increased the sensory acceptance of the cooked faba beans and the highest appearance, odor, texture, flavor, and overall acceptance were for the 10 min sonicated faba beans. The average overall acceptance was 5.94 for the untreated faba beans, while 6.35, 7.59, and 6.88 were found for 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min sonicated samples, respectively.Table 3 Impact of sonication on sensory attributes of cooked faba beans.

Sonication time	Appearance	Odor	Texture	Flavor	Overall acceptance	
0 min	5.65 ± 1.41b	5.94 ± 1.86b	5.94 ± 1.70b	5.47 ± 1.14b	5.94 ± 1.76b	
5 min	7.41 ± 1.09 a	6.47 ± 1.42 ab	6.00 ± 1.08b	6.47 ± 1.50 a	6.35 ± 1.13b	
10 min	7.65 ± 1.08 a	7.35 ± 1.41 a	7.24 ± 1.48 a	7.29 ± 1.07 a	7.59 ± 0.97 a	
15 min	7.35 ± 0.76 a	7.12 ± 1.23 a	6.47 ± 1.50 ab	6.71 ± 1.40 a	6.88 ± 1.13 ab	
Values with similar superscripts in a column do not differ significantly (p < 0.05).

4 Conclusion

Ultrasound is an interesting technology in the food industry and research on its applications is a rapidly growing field. Faba beans are consumed fresh (raw), dried, cooked, and conserved. The findings of this work demonstrate that using ultrasonic treatment can really help improve the dehydration process for fresh faba beans. The mean Deff of fresh faba beans throughout drying in the hot-air dryer exhibited an upward trend when the duration of ultrasonic treatment was extended from 0 to 15 min. Among different kinetic models (Approximation of diffusion, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, Midilli, Newton, Page, and Wang and Singh) used to describe the drying kinetic of faba beans, the Page model provided a good agreement between experimental and predicted moisture ratio values with higher r values (>0.9968), and lower SSE and RMSE values of estimates for all ultrasonic pretreatment. The rehydration ratio of dried faba beans (after cooking) significantly increased from 308.4 % to 327.1 % with the extension of processing time from 0 to 15 min (p < 0.05). The maximum and minimum crust hardness and texture firmness values were for the untreated and sonicated samples for 15 min, respectively. In summary, the sonication pretreatment can be used to reduce drying time and improve the moisture diffusivity of fresh faba beans, and also, produce better quality cooked faba beans properties than traditionally cooked samples.

Ethical statement

Ethical review: None

Funding information: This research was supported by a grant from the Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran (Grant No. 402174 to Fakhreddin Salehi).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Fakhreddin Salehi: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Mostafa Amiri: Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Sara Ghazvineh: Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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