
==== Front
BMC Plant Biol
BMC Plant Biol
BMC Plant Biology
1471-2229
BioMed Central London

5527
10.1186/s12870-024-05527-1
Research
Molasses-based waste water irrigation: a friend or foe for carrot (Daucus carota L.) growth, yield and nutritional quality
Nijabat Aneela 1
Mubashir Muhammad 2
Mahmood ur Rehman Muhammad mmrehman@ujs.edu.cn

3
Siddiqui Manzer H. 4
Alamri Saud 4
Nehal Javeria 5
Khan Rahamdad 6
Zaman Qamar uz qamar.zaman1@envs.uol.edu.pk

7
Haider Syda Zahra 2
Akhlaq Muhammad 3
Ali Aamir 5
1 https://ror.org/05h6gbr15 0000 0005 0635 910X Department of Botany, University of Mianwali, Mianwali, 42200 Pakistan
2 https://ror.org/023a7t361 grid.448869.f 0000 0004 6362 6107 Department of Botany, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan, 44000 Pakistan
3 https://ror.org/03jc41j30 grid.440785.a 0000 0001 0743 511X School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013 China
4 https://ror.org/02f81g417 grid.56302.32 0000 0004 1773 5396 Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451 Saudi Arabia
5 https://ror.org/0086rpr26 grid.412782.a 0000 0004 0609 4693 Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 42100 Pakistan
6 https://ror.org/02an6vg71 grid.459380.3 0000 0004 4652 4475 Department of Agriculture, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, Pakistan
7 https://ror.org/051jrjw38 grid.440564.7 0000 0001 0415 4232 Department of Environmental Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, 54590 Pakistan
12 9 2024
12 9 2024
2024
24 85527 6 2024
20 8 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Management of molasses-based wastewater generated in yeast and sugar industries is a major environmental concern due to its high chemical oxygen demand and other recalcitrant substances. Several strategies have been used to reduce the inland discharge of wastewater but the results are not satisfactory due to high operating cost. However, reuse of molasses-based wastewater irrigation in agriculture has been a major interest nowadays to reduce the freshwater consumption. Thus, it is crucial to monitor the impacts of molasses-based waste water irrigation on growth, metabolism, yield and nutritional quality of crops for safer consumer’s health. In present study, carrot seeds of a local cultivar (T-29) were germinated on filter paper in Petri dishes under controlled conditions. The germinated seeds were then transplanted into pots and irrigated with three different treatments normal water (T0), diluted molasses-based wastewater (T1), and untreated molasses-based wastewater (T2), in six replicates. Results revealed that carrot irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water had exhibited significant reductions in growth, yield, physiology, metabolism, and nutritional contents. Additionally, accumulation of Cd and Pb contents in carrot roots irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water exceed the permissible limits suggested by WHO and their consumption may cause health risks. While, diluted molasses-based waste water irrigation positively enhanced the growth, yield of carrot plants without affecting the nutritional quality. This strategy is cost effective, appeared as most appropriate alternative mean to reduce the freshwater consumption in water deficit regions of the world.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12870-024-05527-1.

Keywords

Carrot cultivation
Waste water remediation
Water scarcity
issue-copyright-statement© BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2024
==== Body
pmcIntroduction

Water is often considered an abundant natural resource but only 3% of it is available for consumption with the remaining 97% trapped in the icecaps and snow covers [1]. Therefore fresh water is facing scarcity issue worldwide, posing a significant threat to life sustainability [2]. Approximately, 2/3rd of the world population (∼ 4 billion people) faces severe water scarcity for at least one month each year and 2 billion are living in inadequate water supply in various countries [3]. Pakistan is one of those countries which experience irregular patterns of annual rainfall (< 100 mm) leading to water shortage in the soil and water bodies [4]. Southern Punjab is a dry arid region of Pakistan and Dera Ghazi (DG) Khan is a very deprived Division and lies in the hyper-arid zone of South Punjab [5]. DG Khan is experiencing high water scarcity in response of extreme droughts [6, 7] and contamination of available freshwater resources due to improper release of industrial effluents such as cement, sugar, detergent, fertilizer, pesticides, and other chemical production units [8]. Among several agro-industries such as sugar mills use a lot of freshwater and release half of it as effluent [9]. About 1500 to 2000 L freshwater is needed to crush one ton of sugarcane and > 1000 L of this water [10] and 2.5 to 4% of molasses is released as waste but these wastes of this agro-industry are less harmful than other [11]. Molasses contains 35% of sucrose, 9% of fructose, 7% of glucose, 4% of non-reducing sugars, 3% of reducing sugars, 4.5% of various nitrogenous compounds, 5% of non-nitrogenous acids, and 12% of ash in 20% of water along with various other metal elements [12]. Thus it has been used as raw material in chemical industry for production of ethanol, bakery yeast, acetic acid, micronutrient, and cattle feed etc. or may be used for crop irrigation after recycling in the developed countries [10].

Waste water irrigation not only minimizes the pressure on freshwater resources, also provide economical support to farmers. Wastewater is an enriched source of organic matter but also contain high amount of various hazardous elements like Cd, Pb, Ni, Cr, Zn, Mn, and Hg etc. which adversely affect the crop yield [13]. On the other hand, recycled waste water irrigation serves as fertilizer and facilitates the microorganism to improve the soil and crop health [14]. It has been reported that ∼ 20 million hectares of cultivated soil across the globe is being irrigated with treated and untreated waste water. Unfortunately, farmers are irrigating crops with untreated waste water in the developing countries like Pakistan resulting in the accumulation of various toxic elements in the soil and plants [15].

In Pakistan, farmers use untreated molasses-based waste water for crop irrigation to avoid the economic pressure of freshwater irrigation, and fertilizers. This poses a significant risk to human and ecosystem health, and these issues are escalating rapidly [16–18]. A previous study reported that Pb is one of the most persist pollutant due to its high retention time (150 to 1500 years) and enters in the food chain from different routes like water, soil, air [19, 20]. Cd is water soluble metal and easily absorbed by plant roots and translocated to arial parts [21–23]. These toxic metal elements interfere with the nutrient uptake ability, inhibit the seed germination, delay the plant growth with deformed morphology by altering various enzymatic activities, disrupted photosynthesis and respiration, increased plasmolysis and ROS production, membrane disintegration etc [24, 25]. Thus, use of untreated waste water for irrigation in agriculture serves as a severe risk for cereals, fruits and vegetable crops [14].

Vegetables accumulate toxic elements in edible and non-edible parts more easily as compared to fruits and cereal crops [26]. Leafy and root vegetables accumulate toxic elements in mesophyll and epidermal tissues of leaves and endodermal tissues of roots. Previous studies reported the accumulation of Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in different leafy and root vegetables including spinach, lettuce, cabbage, and turnip, radish, and sweet potato [27, 28]. Minhas et al., [29] also reported that tuberous root vegetables accumulate higher concentration of toxic metals than leafy vegetables in edible parts. Carrot is an apiaceous tuberous root vegetable and most economical source of various essential minerals, vitamins, pigments, and antioxidants [30] but can accumulates various toxic elements in its tuberous taproot [31, 32]. It is 3rd most consumed vegetable after potato and tomato in raw salads, juices, and various processed forms in Pakistan. Consumption of carrot is increasing due to its nutritious value and existing production quantity cannot fulfill the market demand [33]. Unfortunately, the average carrot yield in Pakistan is low (17.5 tons per hectare) due to various abiotic stresses including salinity, heat, and drought [34]. Farmers irrigate carrot field with molasses based untreated waste water in DG Khan Division to enhance the growth and crop yield with reduced cost of fertilizer and freshwater irrigation (informal discussion with local farmers). It has been reported in a previous study that carrot accumulates several toxic metals such as cadmium in root in response of waste water irrigations which can pose health risks in consumers [35]. Additionally, waste water irrigation resulted in excessive sodium accumulation in carrot root that affects the taste and texture as well [36]. Furthermore, some pharmaceutical compounds such as lamotrigine and carbamazepine have also been detected in carrot roots irrigated with waste water [37, 38]. Long term exposure of these pharmaceutical compounds can cause the cognitive problems (sedation, dizziness, and mood changes), skin allergies, and hematological diseases [39, 40]. Therefore, present study was aimed to evaluate the impacts of molasses-based waste water irrigation treatments on growth, biomass production and nutritional quality of local carrot cultivar (T-29).

Materials and methods

Experimental location and material collection

This experiment was conducted in a hyper-arid zone (District Dera Ghazi Khan) of South Punjab, Pakistan. Climatic conditions of this region remain dry round the year with long harsh summer, cool short winter and temperature varies from 47°F to 114°F. A Pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of molasses-based waste water irrigation on carrot growth, metabolism and total yield, and nutritional quality. The seeds of carrot cultivar (T-29) were taken from Green Plant Seed Company, Multan. Normal tap water was used as positive control treatment (T0) and molasses-based waste water (T1, and T2) collected from untreated drainage of Fatima Sugar Mill, was used for crop irrigation (Table 1). Soil (up to a depth of 20 cm) was collected from agricultural fields and the surface litter was scrapped by autoclaving.

Table 1 Detail of different irrigation treatments for carrot cultivation

Treatment	Different water proportion	
T0(Control)	100% Normal water	
T1(Diluted)	50% Normal water + 50% molasses-based waste water	
T2(Untreated)	100% molasses-based waste water	

Physico-chemical analysis of soil and water samples

The soil samples were air dried and subjected to acid digestion in solution of HNO3, H2SO4, and HClO4 (5:1:1 v/v/v) for 8 h at 80 °C [41]. The translucent material was filtered using Millipore nitocellulose membrane filter with a pore size of 0.45-µm and diluted up to 50 mL with distilled water. Total dissolved solids (TDs), pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured for digested soil samples, and molasses-based wastewater and normal water samples using a pH meter (914 pH meter) and electric conductivity meter (Conductometer Metrohm AG). Mineral nutrient such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca2+), megnessium (Mg2+) contents were measured using a flame photometer (CORNING M410), whereas phosphorus (P) content was measured spectrophotometerically at wavelength of 700 nm following method described by Bolland and Allen [42].

Moreover, nitrogen concentration was measured calorimetrically following method reported by Golterman [43]. Briefly, 20 mL of test solution was mixed with 1.0 mL of sodium salicylate, Nessler’s reagent solution and incubated for 30 min and measured at wavelength of 420 nm spectrophotometrically. Sulphur (S), cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (PerkinElmer 3100) [44]. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were estimated by titrimetric analysis following the method described by Delzer and McKenzie, [45].

Experimental details

Carrot seeds were germinated on filter paper in petri dishes (twenty seeds each) under control conditions in complete darkness for 10 days at room temperature. Petri dishes were arranged in complete randomized design and six replicates were used for each treatment. Number of germinated seeds was counted and transferred to pots filled with soil and pots were divided into three groups arranged in complete randomized design with six replicates for each treatment. Seedlings were irrigated with normal tap water (T0: control), diluted molasses-based waste water (T1), and untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) (Table 1) and seedling emergence rate was observed for next 7 days. After fifteen of seedling emergence, hand thinning was done to uproot the seedlings and only one healthy plant was kept in each pot of six replicates of each treatment for next 100 to 110 days. After that, carrot plants along with tap roots were harvested, washed, and dried with blotting paper and used for data recording. Total of 49 parameters in terms morphology, physiology and biochemistry were studied to evaluate effects of molasses-based irrigations on carrot.

Growth parameters

Growth parameters in terms of seed germination count, seedling emergence, leaf and root length, number of leaves, root weight and diameter, fresh plant biomass, and plant dry biomass were measured to evaluate the growth and yield of carrot plants.

Germinated seed on each Petri dish were counted very carefully after 10 days of incubation [32]. Emergence of seedling was recorded for each treatment and replicate after 15 days of sowing. After harvest, total of six from each treatment (one plant from all six replicates) were used for growth, yield and nutritional quality measurements. Leaf length and root length was measured using a measuring tape at maturity expressed in centimeters (cm). Number of leaves per plant was recorded at maturity when further growth was stopped. Plant fresh and dry weight and root weight was measured using digital weight balance for each treatment and replicate. Root diameter was measured in mm2 by using Vernier Caliper for each replicate [46].

Biochemical parameters

Biochemical parameters were determined in terms of osmoprotectants (sugar, protein, and amino acid contents) while activity of stress responsive enzymes such as phenulalanine ammonialyase (PAL), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), nitrate reductase (NAR), and nitrite reductase (NIR) was measured in fresh leaf tissues.

Osmoprotectants

Total of 0.5 g of fresh leaf tissue were macerated in 10 mL of C2H5OH (80%) and were incubated in water bathe at 80 °C for one hour. Leaf extract was mixed with 18% solution of phenol (0.5:1.0 mL respectively) in test tubes and were seated at room temperature. After one hour of incubation, 2.5 cc of sulphuric acid was mixed and absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 490 nm wavelength [47]. The reducing and non-reducing sugars, free amino acids and soluble protein were also determined on each sample by using method reported by Alabran et al. [48].

Activity of PAL

A homogenized extract of fresh leaf tissue (0.5 g) was prepared using liquid nitrogen and 50 mmol of Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.8) and 0.5 mmol of EDTA. A mixture of leaf extract (0.5 mL), 20 mmol L-phenylalanine, with 50 mmol Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.8) was incubated at 30 °C followed by adding 0.5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid to stop the reaction. Absorbance was measured at wavelength of 290 nm after 30 min and enzyme activity was explained in U µmol g -1 fw [49].

Activity of SOD

A reaction mixture of enzyme extract (0.5 mL) was prepared with 130 mM methionine, 1mM EDTA, 0.75 mM NBT, 0.02 mM riboflavin, and 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7) to determine the concentration of SOD. Absorbance of reaction mixture and blank was measured after 7 min exposure of fluorescent light at wavelength of 560 nm spectrophotometrically. Activity of SOD was calculated using Lambert–Beer law (A ¼ εLC; Where A is the absorbance, ε is the extinction coefficient, L the length of wall, and C the concentration of enzymes) [50].

Activity of CAT

Catalase activity was determined using a method reported by Cakmak and Marschner, [51]. 0.2 ml of enzyme extract was mixed with 25 mM buffer phosphate (pH: 7.0), and 10 mM hydrogen peroxide. Absorbance was measured at wavelength of 240 nm due to hydrogen peroxide extinction and enzyme activity was observed according to the degradation of H2O2 min-1 mg-1 of protein at 25°C and expressed in terms of U µmol g -1 of fw.

Activity of POX

To estimate the activity of POX, a reaction mixture containing 5.0 mM of 4-methylcatechol, 5.0 mM of hydrogen peroxide, and 500 µL of enzyme extract and sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) was prepared at room temperature by making total volume of 3.0 mL. Absorbance was measured at wavelength of 420 nm spectrophotometrically and enzyme activity could be defined as 0.001 unit changes in absorbance min-1 in controlled condition and expressed in terms of U µmol g -1 of fw [52].

Activity of NAR and NIR

The activity of NAR activity was evaluated by using method reported by Kim & Seo [53]. For this, a reaction mixture was prepared by mixing 150 µL of enzyme extract with 850 µL of solution containing 40 mM of NaNO3, 80 mM of Na2HPO4, 20 mM of NaH2PO4, 0.2 mM of NADH, 1% of sulphanilamide. Reaction mixture was incubated for 120 min and absorbance was measured at wavelength of 540 nm. Specific activity of nitrate reductase was calculated by using formula [change of nitrate concentration (µM)] x [extracted volume (mL)]/[fresh weight (g)]/[reaction time (h)] and expressed in terms of µmol g -1 h-1 of fw.

Physical parameters of juice

Physical parameters fresh carrot juice were determined in terms of juice volume, juice viscosity, juice torque, juice pH, total soluble solids, dietary fiber per 100 g of carrot. Fresh carrot roots were washed peeled off and head and tail were removed by knife. The peeled carrot roots were sliced into pieces, weighed and grinded in juicer and pulp residue was dried 60℃ for 24 h and various physical parameters were recorded. The juice volume was measured using volumetric flask in cm3 per 100 g of carrot. The pH and viscosity of juice was measured using digital pH meter (PYE Unicam), and viscometer (Visco QC 100) using the method described in previous study [54]. Total soluble solids were determined in terms of brix (which describes the sweetness of juice) using refractometer by the method of AOAC official methodologies reported in a previous study [55]. Dietary fiber in terms of non-starchy polysaccharide were measured using enzymatic gravimetric method (AOAC) described by McCleary [56].

Proximate analysis

The proximate analysis of carrot juice was determined in terms of moisture, ash, protein, fiber, fat, and carbohydrates contents by following the protocol of the Association of Analytical Chemists (AOAC 2000) described by [57].

Moisture content

The AOAC (oven drying method) No. 934.01 was used to determine moisture content. The samples were kept overnight in an oven at 105°C and the moisture content (%) was calculated by utilizing the following formula; [(weight loss on drying (g)/weight of sample (g)) x100].

Ash content

The crude ash content was calculated by following the AOAC official method No. 942.05. Each sample (2 g: W1) was placed in a crucible and subjected to burning under an oxidizing flame (15–20 min) or until no additional fumes were emitted. Subsequently, the sample was transferred to a muffle furnace and heated to 500 °C for a duration of three hours. After cooling in a desiccator, its weight (W2) was measured. Then, percentage of ash was determined by utilizing the following formula: [(1- (W1-W2)/weight of sample (g)) x100].

Protein content

The crude protein content was determined by AOAC official method No. 954.01. Two grams of the grounded sample was taken into a micro-kjeldahl digestion flask and 5 g of digestion mixture (100 g of K2SO4 + 10 g of CuSO4 + 5 g of FeSO4) was added along with 40 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid and kept on hot plate until solution became clear. The solution was cooled down and transferred to a volumetric flask to make dilution up to 1 L. A 10 mL aliquot of this dilution was boiled in a micro-kjeldahl distillation apparatus along with 10 mL of 40% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The liberated ammonia was condensed and collected into a beaker containing 2% of boric acid solution. Condensed ammonia (50 mL) was mixed with 2–3 drops of indicator (0.1% of BCG and 0.1% of methyl red in 95% alcohol) and mixture was titrated against 0.01 M of HCl with appearance of light pink color at the end. The crude protein (%) was calculated by following the formula: (NxTx0.0014Wx100x6.25).

Fiber content

The crude fiber content was determined by following the AOAC official method No. 962.09. Two gram of the sample was boiled taken in a 250 mL beaker along with 100 mL of 1.25% NaOH for 30 min and filtered through ordinary cloth using a suction pump. The filtrate residue on the cloth was first washed with distilled water, then with acetone and mixed with 100 mL of 1.25% sulfuric acid. The acid-treated washed residue was dried in an oven at 105°C for a few hours till the weight became constant (W1). Then sample was ignited in a muffle furnace at 550–600°C for 2 h and weighed (W2). The following formula was used to compute the percentage of fiber content: [(1- (W1-W2)/weight of sample (g)) x100].

Fat content

The fat content was extracted in a Soxhlet extractor by boiling in diethyl ether at 55°C and then ether was evaporated to measure the fat content using formula [(weight of ether extract (g)/weight of sample (g)) x100] (AOAC official method No. 945.16).

Carbohydrate contents

The carbohydrate content was estimated by subtracting the total mass from the total mass of moisture, ash, fat, and crude protein and expressed as a percentage.

2.9. Estimation of nutrients and heavy metals.

Concentrations of nutrients (Ca, Na, P, Mg, K) and heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb) in carrot juice were estimated by digesting of nitric acid (HNO3) in microwave digestion system followed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission [58].

Estimation of vitamins

Vitamin A, B (riboflavin, thiamine, niacin), C contents in juice of carrot juice were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer [59]. About 5.0 mL of fresh carrot juice was treated with 50 mL of 1 N H2SO4 for 30 min and 3 drops of ammonia solution were mixed followed by filtration. Filtrate (10 mL) was mixed with 5 mL of 50% trichloroacetic acid (for vitamin A, and carotene), and 5 mL of potassium cyanide (for vitamin B-complex) and absorbance was measured at wavelength of 620 nm, 436 nm, 360 nm, 510 nm and 470 nm for vitamin A, carotenes, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin respectively [60]. Carotene was determined utilizing the methodology drawn by Valaden and Mummery [61], following its extraction in the mixture of petroleum ether and acetone. Vitamin C content was determined by the method of Dicholophenol indophenols, AOAC official method No. 985.33 reported by Hussain et al. [62].

Statistical analysis

Collected data was statistically analyzed using analysis of variance followed by LSD significant test using package “Agricolae” and lmer test in R. 3.4.4 (R Core Team, 2018). Violin plots and bar plots were drawn using package “ggplot2” in R.studio. Correlation, principal component analysis (PCA), and heat maps were also drawn using packages “corrr”, “FactoMineR”, and “pheatmap” respectively for better visualization of data.

Results

Physico-chemical analysis of water and soil samples

The present study reported that the physico-chemical characteristics of soil and normal water samples were below the permissible level (WHO standards), while above in molasses-based waste water samples collected from drainage of sugar industry Waste water contained an excessive quantity of TDS and higher value of pH, EC, BOD, and COD, and considerably high amount of cations, anions, macro and micronutrients, and heavy metals (Table 2).

Table 2 Physico-chemical characteristics of normal water and molasses-based waste water used for irrigation of carrot farming

Characters	Normal water	Soil	Molasses-based waste water	
pH	7.7 ± 0.7	7.9 ± 0.23	8.2 ± 0.11	
EC (dS m− 1)	3.71 ± 0.65	4.7 ± 0.13	13.2 ± 0.09	
TDS (ppm)	2261 ± 1.45	2373.5 ± 0.03	7345.7 ± 0.04	
COD (mg L− 1)	4.98 ± 0.61	4.5 ± 0.06	435.9 ± 0.61	
BOD (mg L− 1)	2.10 ± 0.45	2.6 ± 0.45	211.1 ± 0.45	
Cations (meq L − 1 )	
Ca2+	7.12 ± 1.23	4.04 ± 0.01	5.17 ± 0.21	
Mg2+	4.28 ± 1.42	3.02 ± 0.01	4.18 ± 0.14	
K+	1.56 ± 0.98	0.41 ± 0.01	5.73 ± 0.1	
Na+	22.6 ± 0.32	42.3 ± 0.46	78.6 ± 0.91	
Anions (meq L − 1 )	
Cl−	24.1 ± 1.7	34.4 ± 0.2	75 ± 0.4	
CO32−	0.03 ± 0.004	1.21 ± 0.13	0.95 ± 1.3	
HCO3−	0.22 ± 0.32	0.87 ± 0.15	0.91 ± 1.7	
SO42−	8.74 ± 0.12	7.74 ± 0.18	13.41 ± 0.22	
Macro and micro nutrients (mg L − 1 )	
P	6.4 ± 0.13	6.22 ± 0.01	9.47 ± 0.11	
N	7.23 ± 0.33	7.84 ± 0.25	12.92 ± 0.22	
S	7.3 ± 0.12	12.7 ± 0.11	24.3 ± 0.76	
Fe	0.18 ± 0.25	0.63 ± 0.12	3.39 ± 0.34	
Zn	0.01 ± 0.01	0.21 ± 0.01	6.02 ± 0.01	
Cu	0.04 ± 0.02	0.01 ± 0.01	6.01 ± 0.01	
Cd	0.03 ± 0.01	0.01 ± 0.01	9.01 ± 0.01	
Pb	0.02 ± 0.01	0.01 ± 0.01	9.01 ± 0.01	

Impact of irrigation treatments on growth and yield contributing traits of carrot cultivar (T-29)

It was observed that molasses-based waste water irrigation treatments (T1 and T2) showed significant effects on seed germination (P < 0.01 each), seedling emergence (P < 0.001each), leaf length (P < 0.01each), number of leaves per plant (P < 0.001, 0.01 respectively), plant fresh biomass (P < 0.001 each), plant dry biomass (P < 0.01each) with reference to normal water irrigation (T0) (Supplementary Fig. S1). On comparison with normal water irrigation (T0), seeds treated with diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) showed 13.1%, and 66.4% increase in seed germination, seedling emergence while 20.4% and 16.9% decrease in seed germination, seedling emergence was observed in seeds treated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) respectively (Fig. 1a and b). Later on, highest leaf length (57.8 cm) was recorded for plants irrigated with diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) followed by plants irrigated with T2 and T0 i.e. 31.4 cm, and 25.6 cm respectively (Fig. 1c). The same pattern of growth in terms of number of leaves per plant was observed in plants irrigated with T0 (10 leaves), T1 (26 leaves), and T2 (9 leaves) (Fig. 1d). Additionally, highest values of plant fresh and dry biomass were measured for plants irrigated with diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) whereas a significant decrease was observed in plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) in comparison to normal water irrigation (Fig. 1e and f).

Furthermore, irrigation treatment (T1) of diluted molasses-based waste water significantly (P < 0.001 each) affected the yield contributing traits (root length, root diameter, and root weight) of carrot cultivar T-29 (Fig. S1) and > 90% increase in all these traits was recorded as compared to normal water irrigation. On the other hand, a significant decrease of 10.1%, 53.2%, and 17.3% in root length, root diameter, and root weight of plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water was recorded as compared to normal water irrigation (T0) respectively (Fig. 1g and h, and 1i).

Fig. 1 Classified filled barplots (a) seed germination (%), (b), seedling emergence (%), (c) leaf length (cm), (d) number of leaves per plant, (e) plant fresh biomass, (f) plant dry biomass, (g) root length (cm), (h) root diameter (mm2), and (i) root weight (g) carrot cultivar T-29. The three irrigation treatments from T0 to T2 represented by different color filled violins. One-way ANOVA calculated significant differences, followed by LSD test based lettering are also presented, where same letter did not vary significantly. Each barplot is presenting mean value and error bar represents standard error of six replicates

Impact of irrigation treatments on osmoprotactants and activity of stress responsive enzymes in leave of carrot cultivar (T-29)

Analysis of variance exhibited that molasses-based irrigation treatments (T1 and T2) had non-significant effects on osmoprotectants in terms of total soluble sugars, reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars. While, effect of T2 (untreated molasses-based waste water) was significant (P < 0.01) on total soluble proteins and total free amino acids as compared to normal water irrigation i.e. T0 (Supplementary Fig. S2). Total soluble sugar and reducing sugar contents were highest in plants treated with irrigation treatment T2 followed by T1 which were statistically at par with T0 (Fig. 2a, and 2b). On the other hand, non-reducing sugars, total soluble proteins, and free amino acids were maximum in plants irrigated with T2, followed by T1 compared to T0 (Fig. 2c and d, and 2e).

Fig. 2 Classified filled barplots (a) total soluble sugars, (b) reducing sugars, (c) non-reducing sugars, (d) total soluble proteins, and (e) total free amino acids in leaves of carrot cultivar T-29. The three irrigation treatments from T0 to T2 represented by different color filled violins. One-way ANOVA calculated significant differences, followed by LSD test based lettering are also presented, where same letter did not vary significantly. Each barplot is presenting mean value and error bar represents standard error of six replicates

Analysis of variance showed non-significant variation (P > 0.05) for all stress responsive enzymes including POX, PAL, SOD, CAT, NAR, and NIR activities among irrigation treatments (Supplementary Fig. S3). Mean comparison analysis exhibited that activity of all stress responsive enzymes was relatively higher in plants treated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) followed by plants irrigated with diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) and normal water (T0) (Fig. 3a and f). These results suggest that molasses-based waste water irrigation posed negligible oxidative damage in carrot plants.

Fig. 3 Classified filled barplots of activity of stress responsive enzymes (a) POX, (b) PAL, (c) SOD, (d) CAT, (e) nitrate reductase, (f) nitrite reductase in leaves of carrot cultivar T-29. The three irrigation treatments from T0 to T2 represented by different color filled violins. One-way ANOVA calculated significant differences, followed by LSD test based lettering are also presented, where same letter did not vary significantly. Each barplot is presenting mean value and error bar represents standard error of six replicates

Impact of irrigation treatments on physical characteristics of carrot juice

Results revealed that effect of irrigation treatment T1 (diluted molasses-based waste water) was non-significant on volume, torque, pH, and dietary fibers in carrot juice as compared to normal water irrigation (Supplementary Fig. S4), and mean values for these parameters was statistically at par with T0 (Fig. 4). On the other hand, plant irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) showed significant variation for all physical parameters of juice except pH compared to normal water irrigation (Fig. S4). Mean comparison showed highest values of juice volume (82.7 cm3), viscosity (38%), torque (16%), and total soluble solids (88%) for plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (Fig. 4a, b and c, and 4e), while values of pH and dietary fiber content (19%) were higher in plant irrigated with normal water (Fig. 4d and f).

Fig. 4 Classified filled barplots of physical parameters of carrot juice (a) volume, (b) viscosity, (c) torque, (d) pH, (e) TSS: total soluble solids, (f) dietary fibers. The three irrigation treatments from T0 to T2 represented by different color filled violins. One-way ANOVA calculated significant differences, followed by LSD test based lettering are also presented, where same letter did not vary significantly. Each barplot is presenting mean value and error bar represents standard error of six replicates

Impact of irrigation treatments on proximate, nutrient and vitamin content of carrot juice

Statistical analysis exhibited that effect of irrigation treatments was non-significant on crude protein, crude fat, crude carbohydrate, crude fiber, and total ash contents of carrot juice except moisture content (Fig. 5). Same pattern of non-significant variation was observed for heavy metal contents (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb) between molasses-based waste water irrigation treatments (T1 and T2) compared to normal water irrigation (T0). On the other hand, molasses-based waste water irrigation treatments showed significant variation for mineral nutrients (Ca, Na, P, Mg, and K) in juice with respect to normal water irrigation (Supplementary Fig. S5). Additionally, non-significant variation was observed among irrigation treatment for carotenes, vitamin B-complex (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin), vitamin C except vitamin A content of carrot juice (Supplementary Fig. S6). Mean comparison analysis of these chemical contents of juice showed highest values of proximate, mineral nutrients, and vitamin contents in juice extracted from carrot roots irrigated with normal water (T0) followed by diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) and minimal in irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2). Whereas, heavy metal content was relatively higher in juice obtained from carrot plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (T2) followed by diluted molasses-based waste water (T1) and normal water irrigation (T0). Additionally, it was observed that values of heavy metals in all juice samples were below the WHO’s permissible limits except that cadmium and lead contents exceeded the permissible limits in juice obtained from plants irrigated with treatment T2: untreated molasses-based waste water which may cause health issues in human (Table 3).

Fig. 5 Classified filled violin plots (a) moisture content, (b) crude proteins, (c) crude fat, (d) crude carbohydrates, (e) crude fibers, (f) total ash contents in leaves of carrot cultivar T-29. The three irrigation treatments from T0 to T2 represented by different color filled violins. Each violin is delimited 25th and 75th percentile and mean of 5 to 7 seedlings from six replicates represented by dots. One way ANOVA calculated significant differences among the treatment represented with *** (P < 0.0001), ** (P < 0.001), * (P < 0.05), and ns: non-significant (P > 0.05) notations

Table 3 Mean comparison analysis for proximate composition, vitamins, and minerals in carrot roots treated with different irrigation treatments

Treatments	Moisture
(%)	Crude protein
(%)	Crude fat
(%)	Carbohydrates
(%)	Crude fiber
(%)	Total ash
(%)	
T0	88.8 ± 1.7 a	0.9 ± 0.23 a	0.2 ± 0.11 a	10.6 ± 1.21 a	2.4 ± 0.2 a	2.3 ± 0.21 a	
T1	84 ± 1.65 b	0.7 ± 0.13 a	0.2 ± 0.09 a	8.6 ± 1.35 ab	1.2 ± 0.25 b	1.1 ± 0.16 b	
T2	83 ± 1.45 b	0.5 ± 0.03 a	0.7 ± 0.04 a	5.2 ± 0.27 b	1.2 ± 0.11 b	1.2 ± 0.06 b	
Treatments	Carotene

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Thiamine

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Riboflavin

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Niacin

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Vitamin C

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Vitamin A

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	
T0	5.3 ± 1.23 a	0.04 ± 0.01 a	0.02 ± 0.0 a	0.2 ± 0.1 a	4.2 ± 0.23 a	89.8 ± 1.7 a	
T1	3.1 ± 1.42 b	0.002 ± 0.01b	0.008 ± 0.0 b	0.03 ± 0.0 b	2.4 ± 1.34 b	75.1 ± 1.65 b	
T2	2.56 ± 0.98 c	0.002 ± 0.00 b	0.003 ± 0.1 b	0.002 ± 0.0 b	2.1 ± 1.45 b	67.3 ± 1.45 b	
Treatments	Ca

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Na

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	P

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	Mg

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	K

(mg 100 mL − 1 )

	
T0	34 ± 1.7 a	40 ± 0.21a	25 ± 0.14a	9.2 ± 1.0a	42.2 ± 1.2 a		
T1	27 ± 0.4 b	32 ± 0.13b	16 ± 1.23b	4.4 ± 0.21b	35.1 ± 0.3 b		
T2	22 ± 0.32c	27 ± 0.15c	12 ± 1.47c	3.21 ± 0.27b	26.1 ± 0.12 c		
Treatments	Fe

(mg L − 1 )

	Cu

(mg L − 1 )

	Zn

(mg L − 1 )

	Cd

(mg L − 1 )

	Pb

(mg L − 1 )

	
T0	0.001 ± 0.0 b	0.001 ± 0.0 b	0.001 ± 0.0 b	0.001 ± 0.0 b	0.001 ± 0.0 b		
T1	0.04 ± 0.12 a	0.87 ± 0.11 a	1.53 ± 0.76 a	0.014 ± 0.12 a	0.005 ± 1.22 ab		
T2	0.078 ± 0.25 a	0.93 ± 0.12 a	1.69 ± 0.34 a	2.96 ± 0.03 a	2.41 ± 0.23 a		
WHO Limits	0.3	2.0	3.0	0.03	0.01		

Multivariate analysis of collected data

The results indicated that all growth traits except seed germination (that showed no correlation) and yield traits, biochemical contents in leaves except non-reducing sugars (that is negatively correlated with almost all traits) and physical parameters of juice except pH of juice (negatively correlated), total soluble sugars and crude fibers are positively correlated with their own and each other’s traits. However, All minerals and vitamin content and almost all biochemical contents in carrot juice showed negative correlation with most of the parameters except biochemical, mineral and vitamins contents in carrot juice showed positive correlation with pH of the juice, dietary fibers, vitamin A, moisture contents, crude proteins, crude carbohydrates, crud fibers, total ash contents, Ca, Na, P, Mg and K, similarly, metal and vitamin contents in carrot juice showed positive correlation with their own contents and metal contents with total soluble solids and crude fats (Fig. 6).

The PCA showed the distribution of irrigation treatments on carrot growth, metabolism, nutrition quality and yield (Fig. 7). Cumulative variance was 100% i.e. the first factor explained 89.6% and second 10.4%. A great difference among the irrigation treatments was evident in carrot cultivation. The maximum coordinate on PCA Biplot was untreated molasses-based wastewater. PCA further showed most of the growth traits are positively correlated with almost all enzymes, vitamins and some biochemical contents and have no correlation with crude proteins, carbohydrates, Ca, K and pH of juice while negatively correlated with non-reducing sugars, seed germination and some other metals and growth parameters. Likewise, enzymes are positively correlated with each other but have negative correlation with some mineral and metals. Vitamins are also positively correlated with each other’s but have negative correlation with various minerals. Additionally, significant variation was observed among the studied parameters (response variable) of carrot plants irrigated with different irrigation treatments in cluster-based heatmap. Total of 49 response variables were classified in three main groups with number of sub-groups according to the extent of variation and similarity between them (Fig. 8).

Fig. 6 Pearson’s correlation coefficients among 49 pairs of response variables of carrot cultivar treated with different irrigation treatments

Fig. 7 Biplot of principal components analysis of 3 irrigation treatments and 49 response variables of carrot cultivar T-29

Fig. 8 Cluster based heatmap of three irrigation treatments and 49 response variables of carrot cultivar (T-29)

Discussion

Global water scarcity and wastewater use

Freshwater scarcity is a pressing issue exacerbated by several factors such as climate change, population explosion, and unsustainable management practices [63]. Currently, 40% of the global population (∼ 700 million people) is experiencing the water scarcity [64]. The world population is growing steadily and is projected to touch 9.8 billion by 2050 which will exert extreme pressure on available resources including food and water [65]. The increasing pressure on freshwater resources demands wise use of available fresh water resources [66]. Thus agriculture sector needs to reduce its share of freshwater use and look for alternative sources. Developed nations are using recycled wastewater for their crops irrigation for centuries but it has been estimated 10% of global population is consuming plant food irrigated with raw, partially treated or untreated wastewater in ∼ 50 countries [4, 67]. Additionally, long term waste water irrigations can flood the soil with persistent toxic elements, salts which ultimately lower the crop yield and also accumulated in edible parts [68]. In Pakistan 26% of national vegetable production is irrigated with municipal wastewaters generated by domestic and or industrial sector despite the associated risks of soil and crops contamination with heavy metals and pathogenic microbes [69].

Impact of molasses-based waste water on carrot growth

Present study was designed to evaluate the impacts of molasses-based waste water of a sugar mill on carrot cultivation because sugar mills use a lot of fresh water for processing and release half of the water as effluent which is used for crop irrigation in the arid area, receive low annual rainfall [10, 70]. Molasses-based waste water of sugar mill was found to be a rich source of various important cations, anions, mineral nutrients, organic matter along with accumulation of toxic heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd (Table 1). These toxic traces accumulated in the effluent during processing and purification of sugarcane and beet root juices in response of covalent collisions of colliding particles [71]. It was assumed in this study that presence of high concentration of organic matter and dissolved substances will enhance the crop growth. While, high pH, EC, BOD, COD values will not only suppress the biological activities of microorganisms [72], toxic metal elements will accumulate in edible carrot roots and negatively affect the nutritional quality [73]. Previous studies also reported the accumulation of various heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb) in the edible parts of the different vegetables irrigated with municipal waste water [74–78]. Thus, water analysis of present study and findings of previous studies suggest that untreated molasses-based waste water is not appropriate for irrigation whereas, diluted waste water with some proportion of freshwater could be a potential source of plant nutrients and can be used for irrigation purposes [29, 79, 80]. It was observed in present study that growth and yield of carrot plants was significantly increased when carrots are irrigated with diluted molasses-based waste water as compared to normal water irrigation (Fig. 1). Enhanced growth of carrot crop in response of diluted molasses-based waste water irrigation could be attributed to presence of mineral nutrients, and organic matter contents [81]. Similar findings were reported by Saharan et al. [82], and Rael, [83] in spinach and barley. Previous studies showed that molasses waste of sugar industry has long been used to irrigate the crops including sugarcane, and rice resulted in remarkable economic benefits [84]. Additionally, present study also revealed a marked reduction in growth and yield was observed when plant was irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water (Fig. 1). Use of untreated waste water induces the oxidative stress leads to the overproduction of ROS that may inhibit the growth and development of crops [85]. Overproduction of ROS triggers the lipid peroxidation, membrane disruption which ultimately affects the osmotic and ionic homeostasis and severe damage to plant cells [86, 87]. However, plants have potential to avoid or tolerate these oxidative cellular damages by higher accumulation of antioxidants, stress responsive enzymes, and various osmoprotectants [88, 89].

Impact of molasses-based waste water irrigation on osmoprotectants and stress responsive enzyme activity in carrot plants

In present study, concentration of various osmoprotectans such as total soluble sugars, reducing and non-reducing sugars, total soluble proteins, and free amino acids were increased in plants exposed to untreated and diluted molasses-based waste water treatments as compared to normal water irrigation (Fig. 2). The extent of the increase in osmoprotectants could be linked with concentration of toxic metal elements in the water used for the irrigation of crop [90] and it is regarded as an important adaptive plant response to avoid the metal toxicity. It has been previously reported that accumulation of soluble sugars along with other osmolytes in response of stress conditions assists the osmotic adjustments and strengthen the plant metabolism by storage of sufficient reserves [91, 92]. Additionally, it is also believed that proline accumulation in plant tissues under toxic metal stress enhance the hydroxyl radicals scavenging along with osmotic adjustments and lipid stabilization [93]. These osmoprotectants can reduce the oxidative damages by chelating with toxic heavy metal elements in cytoplasm of the cell. Similar findings were also reported by [94]. Improved growth of carrot plants irrigated with diluted molasses-based waste water depicts the improved potential of plant to uptake nutrients which maintain the turgor potential, osmotic balance and membrane stability [95].

In present study, a significant increase in activity of stress responsive enzymes including POX, PAL, SOD, CAT, NAR and NIR were observed in response to irrigation with molasses-based waste water as compared to normal water irrigation (Fig. 3). The extent of the increase in enzymatic activity could be linked with concentration of toxic metal elements in the waste water [90]. Increase in the activity of antioxidant stress responsive enzymes like CAT, POX, SOD confirms the stress level in plants as it has been observed in different plants in response to abiotic stress conditions and accumulation of toxic heavy metals [96]. Sahin et al. [97] also reported increased activity of enzymes in cabbage leaf tissues and soil irrigated with waste water as soil enzymes are also crucial for different reactions occurring in biogeochemical nutrient recycling and assist the pollutants detoxification into beneficial smaller elements boost the plant and microfauna [98].

Health risks and environmental concerns associated with molasses-based waste water irrigation

Presence of toxic metal elements in the molasses-based waste water cannot be ignored as it poses serious environmental and health concerns [98, 99]. Present study revealed toxic metal elements accumulation was observed in edible carrots and their fresh juice. Concentration of cadmium and lead was also exceeded in response of molasses-based waste water irrigation which may be linked with persistent chemical nature of these heavy metals. In contrast with these toxic metal elements, mineral nutrients, proximate contents, and vitamin contents were reduced in these samples (Table 3). Previous studies reported that heavy metals easily accumulated in vegetables than cereals and fruits [100–102] and lessen their nutritional value by reducing the magnitude of antioxidants, pigments, and fibers etc. It could be explained as toxic heavy metals are absorbed by roots and their translocation to arial parts is slow [103]. Thus findings of present study and a previous study [31] confirms that carrot is not hyper-accumulator of toxic metal because carrot root is major site for the synthesis of chelating elements and accumulates high magnitude of toxic metals. Moreover, permissible limits of these toxic heavy metals reported by WHO’s Standards for edible liquids were compared with the detected amounts in carrot root juice (Table 3). It was observed that concentration of Cd and Pb in carrot juice only exceeded the permissible limits in plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water due to their persistent chemical nature. Similarly, hyper-accumulation of these two toxic metals in edible parts of vegetables irrigated with waste water [80]. The hyper-accumulation of metal contents in edible crops irrigated with different wastewaters exceeding the permissible limits set by WHO is a serious food safety concerns. Redox reactions are triggered by toxic heavy metals in the metabolism which generate the free radicals that damage the DNA and proteins [104]. Consumptions of such food crops contaminated with toxic metal elements may cause several foodborne illnesses including neurological disorders, renal damage, cardiovascular diseases, reproductive toxicity, skin lesions, and carcinomas in consumers [105]. Frequent and long term consumption of contaminated foods can cause severe morbidity and mortality as well as serious other environmental concerns that must be addressed carefully [106]. Thus, Present study also discourage the use of untreated waste water for irrigation purposes, however 50% dilution of molasses-based waste water is a safe, cost effective, and potential alternative of freshwater irrigation of vegetables including carrot.

Conclusion

Present study evaluated the impacts of molasses-based waste water irrigation on carrot growth, yield and nutritional quality. Results revealed that the effects of untreated molasses-based waste water exhibited significant reduction in growth, yield, physiology, metabolism, and nutritional contents of carrot. Additionally, Cd and Pb contents accumulation in carrot root of plants irrigated with untreated molasses-based waste water were found to exceed the permissible limits suggested by WHO and their consumption will cause health risks. While, diluted molasses-based waste water irrigation positively enhanced the growth, yield of carrot plants without affecting the nutritional quality. This strategy is cost effective, appeared as most appropriate alternative mean to reduce the freshwater consumption in water deficit regions of the world. This study suggest that policymakers should focus to develop guidelines for safe use of waste water irrigation and implement by raising awareness in farmers regarding risk associated with untreated waste water irrigation. The future research must be focused on developing strategies such as heavy metals remediation to avoid their accumulation in crops, and long term impact of diluted waste water irrigations on the soil health as well.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2024R194), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Author contributions

Author statementA.N., J.N.,: Data analysis, Investigation, Methodology and Formal analysis; M.M.,: Experimental part, Investigation and Methodology; M.M.R., R.K.,; Data curation; A.N., M.M.R., M.A.,: Writing the original draft; A.N.,: Conceptualization, M.H.S., S.A., Q.U.Z., S.Z.H., A.A.,: Writing-review & editing, A.N.,: Supervision.

Funding

The research was funding by the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2024R194), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data availability

The author confirms that all data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

We all declare that manuscript reporting studies do not involve any human participants, human data, or human tissue. So, it is not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Study protocol must comply with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation

Our experiment follows the relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Aneela Nijabat, Muhammad Mubashir and Muhammad Mahmood ur Rehman contributed equally to this work.
==== Refs
References

1. Musie W Gonfa G Fresh water resource, scarcity, water salinity challenges and possible remedies: a review Heliyon 2023 2023 1 12
Musie W, Gonfa G. Fresh water resource, scarcity, water salinity challenges and possible remedies: a review. Heliyon. 2023;2023:1–12.
2. Swain A, Jägerskog A. Emerging security threats in the Middle East: the impact of climate change and globalization. Rowman & Littlefield; 2016. p. 82.
3. Abbass K Qasim MZ Song H Murshed M Mahmood H Younis I A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2022 29 28 42539 59 10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6 35378646
Abbass K, Qasim MZ, Song H, Murshed M, Mahmood H, Younis I. A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022;29(28):42539–59.35378646 10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6
4. Hussain A Cao J Ali S Muhammad S Ullah W Hussain I Zhou J Observed trends and variability of seasonal and annual precipitation in Pakistan during 1960–2016 Int J Climatol 2022 42 16 8313 32 10.1002/joc.7709
Hussain A, Cao J, Ali S, Muhammad S, Ullah W, Hussain I, Zhou J. Observed trends and variability of seasonal and annual precipitation in Pakistan during 1960–2016. Int J Climatol. 2022;42(16):8313–32.10.1002/joc.7709
5. Javid K Akram MAN Ranjha MM Pervaiz S GIS-based assessment of aridity over Punjab Province, Pakistan, by using climatic indices Arab J Geosci 2020 13 1 12 10.1007/s12517-020-5236-9
Javid K, Akram MAN, Ranjha MM, Pervaiz S. GIS-based assessment of aridity over Punjab Province, Pakistan, by using climatic indices. Arab J Geosci. 2020;13:1–12.10.1007/s12517-020-5236-9
6. Riaz K Ahmad B Bukhari SAA Khan T Estimating the impact of climate extremes and their future projections over drought prone regions of Punjab, Pakistan Clim Change 2020 6 22 212 27
Riaz K, Ahmad B, Bukhari SAA, Khan T. Estimating the impact of climate extremes and their future projections over drought prone regions of Punjab, Pakistan. Clim Change. 2020;6(22):212–27.
7. Waseem M Khurshid T Abbas A Ahmad I Javed Z Impact of meteorological drought on agriculture production at different scales in Punjab, Pakistan J Water Clim Change 2022 13 1 113 24 10.2166/wcc.2021.244
Waseem M, Khurshid T, Abbas A, Ahmad I, Javed Z. Impact of meteorological drought on agriculture production at different scales in Punjab, Pakistan. J Water Clim Change. 2022;13(1):113–24.10.2166/wcc.2021.244
8. Javied S Riaz U Saleh MA Alamer KH Siddique N Aslam A Noor N Assessment of Health risks in Wheat Crop Irrigated by Manka Canal, Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan Appl Environ Soil Sci 2023 2023 1 12 10.1155/2023/1097072
Javied S, Riaz U, Saleh MA, Alamer KH, Siddique N, Aslam A, Noor N. Assessment of Health risks in Wheat Crop Irrigated by Manka Canal, Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. Appl Environ Soil Sci. 2023;2023:1–12.10.1155/2023/1097072
9. Razia M, Nallal VUM, Sivaramakrishnan S. Agro-based sugarcane industry wastes for production of high-value bioproducts. Biovalorisation of wastes to renewable chemicals and biofuels. Elsevier; 2020. pp. 303–16.
10. Sahu O Assessment of sugarcane industry: suitability for production, consumption, and utilization Ann Agrarian Sci 2018 16 4 389 95 10.1016/j.aasci.2018.08.001
Sahu O. Assessment of sugarcane industry: suitability for production, consumption, and utilization. Ann Agrarian Sci. 2018;16(4):389–95.10.1016/j.aasci.2018.08.001
11. Ozkale E. Bioremediation of Wastewaters of Sugarcane Biorefineries. Sugarcane-its products and sustainability. IntechOpen; 2023.
12. Netsopa S Kongkeitkajorn MB Yuvadetkun P Matsuno T Minamino A Kasahara T Funada S Integration of cellulosic sugar syrup produced from sugarcane bagasse to molasses-based ethanol production process and improvement in spent wash quality Fuel 2022 316 123336 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123336
Netsopa S, Kongkeitkajorn MB, Yuvadetkun P, Matsuno T, Minamino A, Kasahara T, Funada S. Integration of cellulosic sugar syrup produced from sugarcane bagasse to molasses-based ethanol production process and improvement in spent wash quality. Fuel. 2022;316:123336.10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123336
13. Chan SS Khoo KS Chew KW Ling TC Show PL Recent advances biodegradation and biosorption of organic compounds from wastewater: Microalgae-bacteria consortium-A review Bioresource Technol 2022 344 126159 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126159
Chan SS, Khoo KS, Chew KW, Ling TC, Show PL. Recent advances biodegradation and biosorption of organic compounds from wastewater: Microalgae-bacteria consortium-A review. Bioresource Technol. 2022;344:126159.10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126159
14. Pratap B, Kumar S, Purchase D, Bharagava RN, Dutta V. Practice of wastewater irrigation and its impacts on human health and environment: a state of the art. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2021;1–16.
15. Singh A A review of wastewater irrigation: environmental implications Resour Conserv Recycl 2021 168 105454 10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105454
Singh A. A review of wastewater irrigation: environmental implications. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2021;168:105454.10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105454
16. Antoniadis V Shaheen SM Levizou E Shahid M Niazi NK Vithanage M Rinklebe J A critical prospective analysis of the potential toxicity of trace element regulation limits in soils worldwide: are they protective concerning health risk assessment?-A review Environ Int 2019 127 819 47 10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.039 31051325
Antoniadis V, Shaheen SM, Levizou E, Shahid M, Niazi NK, Vithanage M, Rinklebe J. A critical prospective analysis of the potential toxicity of trace element regulation limits in soils worldwide: are they protective concerning health risk assessment?-A review. Environ Int. 2019;127:819–47.31051325 10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.039
17. Mishra S, Bharagava RN, More N, Yadav A, Zainith S, Mani S, Chowdhary P. Heavy metal contamination: an alarming threat to environment and human health. In: Environmental biotechnology: For sustainable future. 2019. pp. 103–125.
18. Zhang Q Wang C Natural and human factors affect the distribution of soil heavy metal pollution: a review Water Air Soil Pollut 2020 231 1 13 10.1007/s11270-020-04728-2
Zhang Q, Wang C. Natural and human factors affect the distribution of soil heavy metal pollution: a review. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2020;231:1–13.10.1007/s11270-020-04728-2
19. Guo Y Yang S Heavy metal enrichments in the Changjiang (Yangtze River) catchment and on the inner shelf of the East China Sea over the last 150 years Sci Total Environ 2016 543 105 15 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.012 26580732
Guo Y, Yang S. Heavy metal enrichments in the Changjiang (Yangtze River) catchment and on the inner shelf of the East China Sea over the last 150 years. Sci Total Environ. 2016;543:105–15.26580732 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.012
20. Padhye LP, Srivastava P, Jasemizad T, Bolan S, Hou D, Sabry S, Bolan N. Contaminant containment for sustainable remediation of persistent contaminants in soil and groundwater. J Hazard Mater. 2023;131575.
21. Shahid M Dumat C Khalid S Niazi NK Antunes PM Cadmium bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification in soil-plant system Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 2017 241 73 137 27300014
Shahid M, Dumat C, Khalid S, Niazi NK, Antunes PM. Cadmium bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification in soil-plant system. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2017;241:73–137.27300014
22. Sterckeman T Thomine S Mechanisms of cadmium accumulation in plants Crit Rev Plant Sci 2020 39 4 322 59 10.1080/07352689.2020.1792179
Sterckeman T, Thomine S. Mechanisms of cadmium accumulation in plants. Crit Rev Plant Sci. 2020;39(4):322–59.10.1080/07352689.2020.1792179
23. Riaz M Kamran M Rizwan M Ali S Parveen A Malik Z Wang X Cadmium uptake and translocation: selenium and silicon roles in cd detoxification for the production of low cd crops: a critical review Chemosphere 2021 273 129690 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129690 33524757
Riaz M, Kamran M, Rizwan M, Ali S, Parveen A, Malik Z, Wang X. Cadmium uptake and translocation: selenium and silicon roles in cd detoxification for the production of low cd crops: a critical review. Chemosphere. 2021;273:129690.33524757 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129690
24. Małkowski E, Sitko K, Zieleźnik-Rusinowska P, Gieroń Ż, Szopiński M. Heavy metal toxicity: Physiological implications of metal toxicity in plants. In: Plant metallomics and functional omics: a system-wide perspective. 2019. pp. 253–301.
25. Madhu PM Sadagopan RS Effect of heavy metals on growth and development of cultivated plants with reference to cadmium, chromium and lead–a review J Stress Physiol Biochem 2020 16 3 84 102
Madhu PM, Sadagopan RS. Effect of heavy metals on growth and development of cultivated plants with reference to cadmium, chromium and lead–a review. J Stress Physiol Biochem. 2020;16(3):84–102.
26. Kerketta A Kumar H Powell MA Sahoo PK Kapoor HS Mittal S Trace element occurrence in vegetable and cereal crops from parts of Asia: a Meta-data analysis of crop-wise differences Curr Pollut Rep 2023 9 1 1 21
Kerketta A, Kumar H, Powell MA, Sahoo PK, Kapoor HS, Mittal S. Trace element occurrence in vegetable and cereal crops from parts of Asia: a Meta-data analysis of crop-wise differences. Curr Pollut Rep. 2023;9(1):1–21.
27. Naser HM Rahman MZ Sultana S Quddus MA Hossain MA Heavy metal accumulation in leafy vegetables grown in industrial areas under varying levels of pollution J Plant Nutr 2018 41 13 1744 63
Naser HM, Rahman MZ, Sultana S, Quddus MA, Hossain MA. Heavy metal accumulation in leafy vegetables grown in industrial areas under varying levels of pollution. J Plant Nutr. 2018;41(13):1744–63.
28. Moreira IN Martins LL Mourato MP Effect of cd, cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn on seed germination and seedling growth of two lettuce cultivars (Lactuca sativa L) Plant Physiol Rep 2020 25 2 347 58 10.1007/s40502-020-00509-5
Moreira IN, Martins LL, Mourato MP. Effect of cd, cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn on seed germination and seedling growth of two lettuce cultivars (Lactuca sativa L). Plant Physiol Rep. 2020;25(2):347–58.10.1007/s40502-020-00509-5
29. Minhas PS Saha JK Dotaniya ML Sarkar A Saha M Wastewater irrigation in India: current status, impacts and response options Sci Total Environ 2022 808 152001 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152001 34856275
Minhas PS, Saha JK, Dotaniya ML, Sarkar A, Saha M. Wastewater irrigation in India: current status, impacts and response options. Sci Total Environ. 2022;808:152001.34856275 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152001
30. Nijabat A, Bibi S, Ajmal M, Nawaz S, Sajid MZ, Leghari SUK, Simon PW. Proximate composition and prevalence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins intake through consumption of fresh carrot and processed marketed carrot products in South Punjab, Pakistan. Nat Prod Res. 2023;1–10.
31. Faiz S Shah AA Naveed NH Nijabat A Yasin NA Batool AI Ali A Synergistic application of silver nanoparticles and indole acetic acid alleviate cadmium induced stress and improve growth of Daucus carota L Chemosphere 2022 290 133200 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133200 34914957
Faiz S, Shah AA, Naveed NH, Nijabat A, Yasin NA, Batool AI, Ali A. Synergistic application of silver nanoparticles and indole acetic acid alleviate cadmium induced stress and improve growth of Daucus carota L. Chemosphere. 2022;290:133200.34914957 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133200
32. Nijabat A Manzoor S Faiz S Naveed NH Bolton A Khan BA Simon P Variation in seed germination and amylase activity of Diverse Carrot [Daucus carota (L.)] germplasm under simulated Drought stress HortScience 2023 58 2 205 14 10.21273/HORTSCI16806-22
Nijabat A, Manzoor S, Faiz S, Naveed NH, Bolton A, Khan BA, Simon P. Variation in seed germination and amylase activity of Diverse Carrot [Daucus carota (L.)] germplasm under simulated Drought stress. HortScience. 2023;58(2):205–14.10.21273/HORTSCI16806-22
33. Nijabat A Bolton A Mahmood-ur-Rehman M Shah AI Hussain R Naveed NH Simon P Cell membrane stability and relative cell injury in response to heat stress during early and late seedling stages of diverse carrot (Daucus carota L.) germplasm HortScience 2020 55 9 1446 52 10.21273/HORTSCI15058-20
Nijabat A, Bolton A, Mahmood-ur-Rehman M, Shah AI, Hussain R, Naveed NH, Simon P. Cell membrane stability and relative cell injury in response to heat stress during early and late seedling stages of diverse carrot (Daucus carota L.) germplasm. HortScience. 2020;55(9):1446–52.10.21273/HORTSCI15058-20
34. Simon PW Rolling WR Senalik D Bolton AL Rahim MA Mannan AM Ijaz Shah A Wild carrot diversity for new sources of abiotic stress tolerance to strengthen vegetable breeding in Bangladesh and Pakistan Crop Sci 2021 61 1 163 76 10.1002/csc2.20333
Simon PW, Rolling WR, Senalik D, Bolton AL, Rahim MA, Mannan AM, Ijaz Shah A. Wild carrot diversity for new sources of abiotic stress tolerance to strengthen vegetable breeding in Bangladesh and Pakistan. Crop Sci. 2021;61(1):163–76.10.1002/csc2.20333
35. Perveen S Samad AB Nazif W Shah S Impact of sewage water on vegetables quality with respect to heavy metals in Peshawar, Pakistan Pak J Bot 2012 44 6 1923 31
Perveen S, Samad AB, Nazif W, Shah S. Impact of sewage water on vegetables quality with respect to heavy metals in Peshawar, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(6):1923–31.
36. Ahmad HR, Sabir M, Zia ur Rehman M, Aziz T, Maqsood MA, Ayub MA, Shahzad A. Wastewater irrigation-sourced plant nutrition: concerns and prospects. In: Plant Micronutrients: Deficiency and Toxicity Management. 2020. pp. 417–434.
37. Malchi T Maor Y Tadmor G Shenker M Chefetz B Irrigation of root vegetables with treated wastewater: evaluating uptake of pharmaceuticals and the associated human health risks Environ Sci Technol 2014 48 16 9325 33 10.1021/es5017894 25026038
Malchi T, Maor Y, Tadmor G, Shenker M, Chefetz B. Irrigation of root vegetables with treated wastewater: evaluating uptake of pharmaceuticals and the associated human health risks. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48(16):9325–33.25026038 10.1021/es5017894
38. Mordechay EB Mordehay V Tarchitzky J Chefetz B Pharmaceuticals in edible crops irrigated with reclaimed wastewater: evidence from a large survey in Israel J Hazard Mater 2021 416 126184 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126184 34492955
Mordechay EB, Mordehay V, Tarchitzky J, Chefetz B. Pharmaceuticals in edible crops irrigated with reclaimed wastewater: evidence from a large survey in Israel. J Hazard Mater. 2021;416:126184.34492955 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126184
39. Kubova H. Side effects of antiepileptic drugs. In: Antiepileptic Drug Discovery: Novel Approaches. 2016. pp. 329–350.
40. Khouzam HR A review of anticonvulsants use in Psychiatric conditions EC Neurol 2019 11 579 91
Khouzam HR. A review of anticonvulsants use in Psychiatric conditions. EC Neurol. 2019;11:579–91.
41. Edgell K USEPA method study 37 SW-846 method 3050 acid digestion of sediments, sludges, and soils 1989 Washington, DC, USA US Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
Edgell K. USEPA method study 37 SW-846 method 3050 acid digestion of sediments, sludges, and soils. Washington, DC, USA: US Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory; 1989.
42. Bolland MDA Allen DG Phosphorus sorption by sandy soils from Western Australia: effect of previously sorbed P on P buffer capacity and single-point P absorption indices Soil Res 2003 41 7 1369 88 10.1071/SR02098
Bolland MDA, Allen DG. Phosphorus sorption by sandy soils from Western Australia: effect of previously sorbed P on P buffer capacity and single-point P absorption indices. Soil Res. 2003;41(7):1369–88.10.1071/SR02098
43. Golterman HL Methods for chemical analysis of fresh waters 1969 Oxford and Edinburgh Blackwell Scientific 172
Golterman HL. Methods for chemical analysis of fresh waters. Oxford and Edinburgh: Blackwell Scientific; 1969. p. 172.
44. Otitoju O Otitoju GTO Iyeghe LU Onwurah INE Quantification of heavy metals in some locally produced rice (Oryza sativa) from the northern region of Nigeria J Environ Earth Sci 2014 4 4 67 71
Otitoju O, Otitoju GTO, Iyeghe LU, Onwurah INE. Quantification of heavy metals in some locally produced rice (Oryza sativa) from the northern region of Nigeria. J Environ Earth Sci. 2014;4(4):67–71.
45. Delzer GC, McKenzie SW. Chapter A7. Section 7.0. Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (No. 09-A7.0). US Geological Survey. 2003.
46. Rehman MM, Muhammad Amjad, Ziaf K, Ahmad R. Seed priming with salicylic acid improve seed germination and physiological responses of carrot seeds. Pak J Agric Sci. 2020;351–9.
47. Chapman ARO Craigie JS Seasonal growth in Laminaria Longicuris: relations with reserve carbohydrate storage and production Mar Biol 1978 46 209 13 10.1007/BF00390682
Chapman ARO, Craigie JS. Seasonal growth in Laminaria Longicuris: relations with reserve carbohydrate storage and production. Mar Biol. 1978;46:209–13.10.1007/BF00390682
48. Alabran DM Mabrouk AF Carrot flavor. Sugars and free nitrogenous compounds in fresh carrots J Agric Food Chem 1973 21 2 205 8 10.1021/jf60186a020
Alabran DM, Mabrouk AF. Carrot flavor. Sugars and free nitrogenous compounds in fresh carrots. J Agric Food Chem. 1973;21(2):205–8.10.1021/jf60186a020
49. Hahlbrock K Ragg H Light-induced changes of enzyme activities in parsley cell suspension cultures: effects of inhibitors of RNA and protein synthesis Arch Biochem Biophys 1975 166 1 41 6 10.1016/0003-9861(75)90362-8 1122143
Hahlbrock K, Ragg H. Light-induced changes of enzyme activities in parsley cell suspension cultures: effects of inhibitors of RNA and protein synthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1975;166(1):41–6.1122143 10.1016/0003-9861(75)90362-8
50. Hussain S Khalid MF Saqib M Ahmad S Zafar W Rao MJ Drought tolerance in citrus rootstocks is associated with better antioxidant defense mechanism Acta Physiol Plant 2018 40 1 10 10.1007/s11738-018-2710-z
Hussain S, Khalid MF, Saqib M, Ahmad S, Zafar W, Rao MJ, et al. Drought tolerance in citrus rootstocks is associated with better antioxidant defense mechanism. Acta Physiol Plant. 2018;40:1–10.10.1007/s11738-018-2710-z
51. Cakmak I Marschner H Magnesium deficiency and high light intensity enhance activities of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase in bean leaves Plant Physiol 1992 98 4 1222 7 10.1104/pp.98.4.1222 16668779
Cakmak I, Marschner H. Magnesium deficiency and high light intensity enhance activities of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase in bean leaves. Plant Physiol. 1992;98(4):1222–7.16668779 10.1104/pp.98.4.1222
52. Onsa GH Bin Saari N Selamat J Bakar J Purification and characterization of membrane-bound peroxidases from Metroxylon sagu Food Chem 2004 85 3 365 76 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.07.013
Onsa GH, Bin Saari N, Selamat J, Bakar J. Purification and characterization of membrane-bound peroxidases from Metroxylon sagu. Food Chem. 2004;85(3):365–76.10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.07.013
53. Kim JY, Seo HS. In vitro nitrate reductase activity assay from Arabidopsis crude extracts. Bio-protocol. 2018;8(7).
54. Bratovcic A Nazdrajic S Odobasic A Sestan I The influence of type of surfactant on physicochemical properties of liquid soap Int J Mat Chem 2018 8 31 7
Bratovcic A, Nazdrajic S, Odobasic A, Sestan I. The influence of type of surfactant on physicochemical properties of liquid soap. Int J Mat Chem. 2018;8:31–7.
55. Garcia-Amezquita LE Tejada-Ortigoza V Heredia-Olea E Serna-Saldívar SO Welti-Chanes J Differences in the dietary fiber content of fruits and their by-products quantified by conventional and integrated AOAC official methodologies J Food Compos Anal 2018 67 77 85 10.1016/j.jfca.2018.01.004
Garcia-Amezquita LE, Tejada-Ortigoza V, Heredia-Olea E, Serna-Saldívar SO, Welti-Chanes J. Differences in the dietary fiber content of fruits and their by-products quantified by conventional and integrated AOAC official methodologies. J Food Compos Anal. 2018;67:77–85.10.1016/j.jfca.2018.01.004
56. McCleary BV Measurement of Dietary Fiber: which AOAC Official Method of Analysis SM to Use J AOAC Int 2023 106 4 917 30 10.1093/jaoacint/qsad051 37129539
McCleary BV. Measurement of Dietary Fiber: which AOAC Official Method of Analysis SM to Use. J AOAC Int. 2023;106(4):917–30.37129539 10.1093/jaoacint/qsad051
57. Maisarah AM Asmah R Fauziah O Proximate analysis, antioxidant and anti proliferative activities of different parts of Carica papaya J Tissue Sci Eng 2014 5 1 1 10
Maisarah AM, Asmah R, Fauziah O. Proximate analysis, antioxidant and anti proliferative activities of different parts of Carica papaya. J Tissue Sci Eng. 2014;5(1):1–10.
58. Donohue SJ, Aho DW, Determination P, Ca K. Mg, Mn, Fe, Al, B, Cu, and Zn in plant tissue by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) emission spectroscopy. In: Plant Analysis Reference Procedures for the Southern Region of the United States, Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin 368. Edited by: Plank CO. 1992. pp. 37–40.
59. Bajaj KL Gurdeep K Spectrophotometric determination of L-aseobic acid in vegetable and fruits Analyst 1981 106 1117 20 10.1039/an9810600117
Bajaj KL, Gurdeep K. Spectrophotometric determination of L-aseobic acid in vegetable and fruits. Analyst. 1981;106:1117–20.10.1039/an9810600117
60. Okwu DE Josiah C Evaluation of the chemical composition of two Nigerian medicinal plants Afr J Biotechnol 2006 5 357 61
Okwu DE, Josiah C. Evaluation of the chemical composition of two Nigerian medicinal plants. Afr J Biotechnol. 2006;5:357–61.
61. Valadon LPG Mummery RS Carotenoids of floral plants and the spadix of Arum maculatum Z Pflanzen Physiol 1975 75 88 94 10.1016/S0044-328X(75)80078-X
Valadon LPG, Mummery RS. Carotenoids of floral plants and the spadix of Arum maculatum. Z Pflanzen Physiol. 1975;75:88–94.10.1016/S0044-328X(75)80078-X
62. Hussain MI Hamza A Rashid MA Estimation of vitamin C in carrot before cooking and after cooking J Food Nutr Sci 2014 4 4 108 12
Hussain MI, Hamza A, Rashid MA. Estimation of vitamin C in carrot before cooking and after cooking. J Food Nutr Sci. 2014;4(4):108–12.
63. Karimi M Tabiee M Karami S Karimi V Karamidehkordi E Climate change and water scarcity impacts on sustainability in semi-arid areas: lessons from the South of Iran Groundw Sustain Dev 2024 24 101075 10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101075
Karimi M, Tabiee M, Karami S, Karimi V, Karamidehkordi E. Climate change and water scarcity impacts on sustainability in semi-arid areas: lessons from the South of Iran. Groundw Sustain Dev. 2024;24:101075.10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101075
64. Shemer H Wald S Semiat R Challenges and solutions for global water scarcity Membr (Basel) 2023 13 6 612
Shemer H, Wald S, Semiat R. Challenges and solutions for global water scarcity. Membr (Basel). 2023;13(6):612.
65. Khan N Ray RL Sargani GR Ihtisham M Khayyam M Ismail S Current progress and future prospects of agriculture technology: gateway to sustainable agriculture Sustainability 2021 13 9 4883 10.3390/su13094883
Khan N, Ray RL, Sargani GR, Ihtisham M, Khayyam M, Ismail S. Current progress and future prospects of agriculture technology: gateway to sustainable agriculture. Sustainability. 2021;13(9):4883.10.3390/su13094883
66. Baggio G Qadir M Smakhtin V Freshwater availability status across countries for human and ecosystem needs Sci Total Environ 2021 792 148230 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148230 34147805
Baggio G, Qadir M, Smakhtin V. Freshwater availability status across countries for human and ecosystem needs. Sci Total Environ. 2021;792:148230.34147805 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148230
67. Malik OA Hsu A Johnson LA De Sherbinin A A global indicator of wastewater treatment to inform the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Environ Sci Policy 2015 48 172 85 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.01.005
Malik OA, Hsu A, Johnson LA, De Sherbinin A. A global indicator of wastewater treatment to inform the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Environ Sci Policy. 2015;48:172–85.10.1016/j.envsci.2015.01.005
68. Khan MM Siddiqi SA Farooque AA Iqbal Q Shahid SA Akram MT Towards sustainable application of wastewater in agriculture: a review on reusability and risk assessment Agron (Basel) 2022 12 6 1397
Khan MM, Siddiqi SA, Farooque AA, Iqbal Q, Shahid SA, Akram MT, et al. Towards sustainable application of wastewater in agriculture: a review on reusability and risk assessment. Agron (Basel). 2022;12(6):1397.
69. Ensink JH Mahmood T Van der Hoek W Raschid-Sally L Amerasinghe FP Faiz S Shah AA Naveed NH Nijabat Water Policy 2004 6 3 197 206 10.2166/wp.2004.0013
Ensink JH, Mahmood T, Van der Hoek W, Raschid-Sally L, Amerasinghe FP, Faiz S, Shah AA, Naveed NH. Nijabat Water Policy. 2004;6(3):197–206.10.2166/wp.2004.0013
70. Bhati KT Kumar S Haileslassie A Whitbread AM Assessment of agricultural technologies for Dryland systems in South Asia 2017 India a case study of Western Rajasthan
Bhati KT, Kumar S, Haileslassie A, Whitbread AM. Assessment of agricultural technologies for Dryland systems in South Asia. India: a case study of Western Rajasthan; 2017.
71. Siddiqui WA Waseem M A comparative study of sugar mill treated and untreated effluent-a case study Orient J Chem 2012 28 4 1899 10.13005/ojc/280451
Siddiqui WA, Waseem M. A comparative study of sugar mill treated and untreated effluent-a case study. Orient J Chem. 2012;28(4):1899.10.13005/ojc/280451
72. Kumar V, Chandra R, Thakur IS, Saxena G, Shah MP. Recent advances in physicochemical and biological treatment approaches for distillery wastewater. In: Combined application of physico-chemical & microbiological processes for industrial effluent treatment plant. 2020. pp. 79–118.
73. Osman M Seddik W Kenawy M Agronomic evaluation of diluted vinasse as a source of potassium fertilizers for peanut and carrot crops J Soil Sci Agric Eng 2016 7 2 107 16
Osman M, Seddik W, Kenawy M. Agronomic evaluation of diluted vinasse as a source of potassium fertilizers for peanut and carrot crops. J Soil Sci Agric Eng. 2016;7(2):107–16.
74. Ahmad JU Goni MA Heavy metal contamination in water, soil, and vegetables of the industrial areas in Dhaka, Bangladesh Environ Monit Assess 2010 166 347 57 10.1007/s10661-009-1006-6 19521788
Ahmad JU, Goni MA. Heavy metal contamination in water, soil, and vegetables of the industrial areas in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess. 2010;166:347–57.19521788 10.1007/s10661-009-1006-6
75. Hu Y Wang D Wei L Zhang X Song B Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plant leaves from Yan’an city of the Loess Plateau, China Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2014 110 82 8 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.08.021 25199586
Hu Y, Wang D, Wei L, Zhang X, Song B. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plant leaves from Yan’an city of the Loess Plateau, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2014;110:82–8.25199586 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.08.021
76. Qureshi AS Hussain MI Ismail S Khan QM Evaluating heavy metal accumulation and potential health risks in vegetables irrigated with treated wastewater Chemosphere 2016 163 54 61 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.073 27521639
Qureshi AS, Hussain MI, Ismail S, Khan QM. Evaluating heavy metal accumulation and potential health risks in vegetables irrigated with treated wastewater. Chemosphere. 2016;163:54–61.27521639 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.073
77. Waheed H Ilyas N Iqbal Raja N Mahmood T Ali Z Heavy metal phyto-accumulation in leafy vegetables irrigated with municipal wastewater and human health risk repercussions Int J Phytorem 2019 21 2 170 9 10.1080/15226514.2018.1540547
Waheed H, Ilyas N, Iqbal Raja N, Mahmood T, Ali Z. Heavy metal phyto-accumulation in leafy vegetables irrigated with municipal wastewater and human health risk repercussions. Int J Phytorem. 2019;21(2):170–9.10.1080/15226514.2018.1540547
78. Tariq FS Heavy metals concentration in vegetables irrigated with municipal wastewater and their human daily intake in Erbil city Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag 2021 16 100475
Tariq FS. Heavy metals concentration in vegetables irrigated with municipal wastewater and their human daily intake in Erbil city. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag. 2021;16:100475.
79. Keraita B Jimenez B Drechsel P Extent and implications of agricultural reuse of untreated, partly treated and diluted wastewater in developing countries CABI Rev 2008 2008 1 15
Keraita B, Jimenez B, Drechsel P. Extent and implications of agricultural reuse of untreated, partly treated and diluted wastewater in developing countries. CABI Rev. 2008;2008:1–15.
80. Hashem MS Qi X Treated wastewater irrigation—A review Water 2021 13 11 1527 10.3390/w13111527
Hashem MS, Qi X. Treated wastewater irrigation—A review. Water. 2021;13(11):1527.10.3390/w13111527
81. Kassa GM Asemu AM Belachew MT Satheesh N Abera BD Alemu Teferi D Review on the application, health usage, and negative effects of molasses CyTA-J Food 2024 22 1 2321984 10.1080/19476337.2024.2321984
Kassa GM, Asemu AM, Belachew MT, Satheesh N, Abera BD, Alemu Teferi D. Review on the application, health usage, and negative effects of molasses. CyTA-J Food. 2024;22(1):2321984.10.1080/19476337.2024.2321984
82. Saharan BS, Sahu RK, Sharma D. A review on biosurfactants: fermentation, current developments and perspectives. Genet Eng Biotechnol J. 2011;(1):1–14.
83. Rael J. Efficacy of fortified molasses waste-water as hydroponic nutrient solution for growing of spinach and barley [doctoral dissertation]. Kenyatta University; 2021.
84. Ghazali N, Ku Ismail KS, Abd Aziz R, Wan Yaakub AR, Ab Adzim Saifuddin MN, Inthano N, Katimon A. Effect of molasses-based wastewater irrigation on the rice yield and heavy metals uptake by Oryza sativa: A field study. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 2907, No. 1. AIP Publishing; 2023.
85. Wang LF Lu XP Yuan HY Wang B Shen QR Application of bio-organic fertilizer to control tomato fusarium wilting by manipulating soil microbial communities and development Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 2015 46 2311 22 10.1080/00103624.2015.1081694
Wang LF, Lu XP, Yuan HY, Wang B, Shen QR. Application of bio-organic fertilizer to control tomato fusarium wilting by manipulating soil microbial communities and development. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal. 2015;46:2311–22.10.1080/00103624.2015.1081694
86. Coskun D Britto DT Jean YK Schulze LM Becker A Kronzucker HJ Silver ions disrupt K + homeostasis and cellular integrity in intact barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) roots J Exp Bot 2012 63 1 151 62 10.1093/jxb/err267 21948852
Coskun D, Britto DT, Jean YK, Schulze LM, Becker A, Kronzucker HJ. Silver ions disrupt K + homeostasis and cellular integrity in intact barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) roots. J Exp Bot. 2012;63(1):151–62.21948852 10.1093/jxb/err267
87. Sze H Chanroj S Plant endomembrane dynamics: studies of K+/H + antiporters provide insights on the effects of pH and ion homeostasis Plant Physiol 2018 177 3 875 95 10.1104/pp.18.00142 29691301
Sze H, Chanroj S. Plant endomembrane dynamics: studies of K+/H + antiporters provide insights on the effects of pH and ion homeostasis. Plant Physiol. 2018;177(3):875–95.29691301 10.1104/pp.18.00142
88. Choudhury FK Rivero RM Blumwald E Mittler R Reactive oxygen species, abiotic stress and stress combination Plant J 2017 90 856 67 10.1111/tpj.13299 27801967
Choudhury FK, Rivero RM, Blumwald E, Mittler R. Reactive oxygen species, abiotic stress and stress combination. Plant J. 2017;90:856–67.27801967 10.1111/tpj.13299
89. Arif Y Singh P Siddiqui H Bajguz A Hayat S Salinity induced physiological and biochemical changes in plants: an omic approach towards salt stress tolerance Plant Physiol Biochem 2020 156 64 77 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.08.042 32906023
Arif Y, Singh P, Siddiqui H, Bajguz A, Hayat S. Salinity induced physiological and biochemical changes in plants: an omic approach towards salt stress tolerance. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2020;156:64–77.32906023 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.08.042
90. Hashem HA Hassanein RA El-Deep MH Shouman AI Irrigation with industrial wastewater activates antioxidant system and osmoprotectant accumulation in lettuce, turnip and tomato plants Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2013 95 144 52 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.05.030 23790475
Hashem HA, Hassanein RA, El-Deep MH, Shouman AI. Irrigation with industrial wastewater activates antioxidant system and osmoprotectant accumulation in lettuce, turnip and tomato plants. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2013;95:144–52.23790475 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.05.030
91. Ahmad F, Singh A, Kamal A. Osmoprotective role of sugar in mitigating abiotic stress in plants. In: Protective chemical agents in the amelioration of plant abiotic stress: Biochemical and molecular perspectives. 2020. pp. 53–70.
92. Afzal S, Chaudhary N, Singh NK. Role of soluble sugars in metabolism and sensing under abiotic stress. In: Plant growth regulators: signalling under stress conditions. 2021. pp. 305–334.
93. Shafi A, Zahoor I, Mushtaq U. Proline accumulation and oxidative stress: Diverse roles and mechanism of tolerance and adaptation under salinity stress. In: Salt Stress, Microbes, and Plant Interactions: Mechanisms and Molecular Approaches: Volume 2. 2019. pp. 269–300.
94. Acosta-Motos JR Diaz-Vivancos P Álvarez S Fernández-García N Sanchez-Blanco MJ Hernández JA Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the ornamental Eugenia myrtifolia L. plants for coping with NaCl stress and recovery Planta 2015 242 829 46 10.1007/s00425-015-2315-3 25976265
Acosta-Motos JR, Diaz-Vivancos P, Álvarez S, Fernández-García N, Sanchez-Blanco MJ, Hernández JA. Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the ornamental Eugenia myrtifolia L. plants for coping with NaCl stress and recovery. Planta. 2015;242:829–46.25976265 10.1007/s00425-015-2315-3
95. Cantabella D Piqueras A Acosta-Motos JR Bernal-Vicente A Hernández JA Díaz-Vivancos P Salt-tolerance mechanisms induced in Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni: effects on mineral nutrition, antioxidative metabolism and steviol glycoside content Plant Physiol Biochem 2017 115 484 96 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.04.023 28500994
Cantabella D, Piqueras A, Acosta-Motos JR, Bernal-Vicente A, Hernández JA, Díaz-Vivancos P. Salt-tolerance mechanisms induced in Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni: effects on mineral nutrition, antioxidative metabolism and steviol glycoside content. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2017;115:484–96.28500994 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.04.023
96. Kamran M Malik Z Parveen A Huang L Riaz M Bashir S Ali U Ameliorative effects of biochar on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) growth and heavy metal immobilization in soil irrigated with untreated wastewater J Plant Growth Regul 2020 39 266 81 10.1007/s00344-019-09980-3
Kamran M, Malik Z, Parveen A, Huang L, Riaz M, Bashir S, Ali U. Ameliorative effects of biochar on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) growth and heavy metal immobilization in soil irrigated with untreated wastewater. J Plant Growth Regul. 2020;39:266–81.10.1007/s00344-019-09980-3
97. Sahin U Ekinci M Ors S Turan M Yildiz S Yildirim E Effects of individual and combined effects of salinity and drought on physiological, nutritional and biochemical properties of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) Sci Hortic 2018 240 196 204 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.06.016
Sahin U, Ekinci M, Ors S, Turan M, Yildiz S, Yildirim E. Effects of individual and combined effects of salinity and drought on physiological, nutritional and biochemical properties of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Sci Hortic. 2018;240:196–204.10.1016/j.scienta.2018.06.016
98. Wang C Luo Y Tan H Liu H Xu F Xu H Responsiveness change of biochemistry and micro-ecology in alkaline soil under PAHs contamination with or without heavy metal interaction Environ Pollut 2020 266 115296 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115296 32791476
Wang C, Luo Y, Tan H, Liu H, Xu F, Xu H. Responsiveness change of biochemistry and micro-ecology in alkaline soil under PAHs contamination with or without heavy metal interaction. Environ Pollut. 2020;266:115296.32791476 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115296
99. Gu P Zhang S Li X Wang X Wen T Jehan R Wang X Recent advances in layered double hydroxide-based nanomaterials for the removal of radionuclides from aqueous solution Environ Pollut 2018 240 493 505 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.136 29754099
Gu P, Zhang S, Li X, Wang X, Wen T, Jehan R, Wang X. Recent advances in layered double hydroxide-based nanomaterials for the removal of radionuclides from aqueous solution. Environ Pollut. 2018;240:493–505.29754099 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.136
100. Brodin M Vallejos M Opedal MT Area MC Chinga-Carrasco G Lignocellulosics as sustainable resources for production of bioplastics–A review J Clean Prod 2017 162 646 64 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.209
Brodin M, Vallejos M, Opedal MT, Area MC, Chinga-Carrasco G. Lignocellulosics as sustainable resources for production of bioplastics–A review. J Clean Prod. 2017;162:646–64.10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.209
101. Manzoor J Sharma M Wani KA Heavy metals in vegetables and their impact on the nutrient quality of vegetables: a review J Plant Nutr 2018 41 13 1744 63 10.1080/01904167.2018.1462382
Manzoor J, Sharma M, Wani KA. Heavy metals in vegetables and their impact on the nutrient quality of vegetables: a review. J Plant Nutr. 2018;41(13):1744–63.10.1080/01904167.2018.1462382
102. Ferrey ML Hamilton MC Backe WJ Anderson KE Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic chemicals in atmospheric particulates and precipitation Sci Total Environ 2018 612 1488 97 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.201 28910962
Ferrey ML, Hamilton MC, Backe WJ, Anderson KE. Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic chemicals in atmospheric particulates and precipitation. Sci Total Environ. 2018;612:1488–97.28910962 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.201
103. Page V Feller U Heavy metals in crop plants: transport and redistribution processes on the whole plant level Agronomy 2015 5 3 447 63 10.3390/agronomy5030447
Page V, Feller U. Heavy metals in crop plants: transport and redistribution processes on the whole plant level. Agronomy. 2015;5(3):447–63.10.3390/agronomy5030447
104. Fu Z Xi S The effects of heavy metals on human metabolism Toxicol Mech Methods 2020 30 3 167 76 10.1080/15376516.2019.1701594 31818169
Fu Z, Xi S. The effects of heavy metals on human metabolism. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2020;30(3):167–76.31818169 10.1080/15376516.2019.1701594
105. Onyeaka H Ghosh S Obileke K Miri T Odeyemi OA Nwaiwu O Tamasiga P Preventing chemical contaminants in food: challenges and prospects for safe and sustainable food production Food Control 2024 155 110040 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.110040
Onyeaka H, Ghosh S, Obileke K, Miri T, Odeyemi OA, Nwaiwu O, Tamasiga P. Preventing chemical contaminants in food: challenges and prospects for safe and sustainable food production. Food Control. 2024;155:110040.10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.110040
106. Stoev SD Food Security and Foodborne mycotoxicoses-what should be the adequate risk Assessment and Regulation? Microorganisms 2024 12 3 580 10.3390/microorganisms12030580 38543632
Stoev SD. Food Security and Foodborne mycotoxicoses-what should be the adequate risk Assessment and Regulation? Microorganisms. 2024;12(3):580.38543632 10.3390/microorganisms12030580
