
==== Front
Sci Data
Sci Data
Scientific Data
2052-4463
Nature Publishing Group UK London

39261517
3736
10.1038/s41597-024-03736-9
Data Descriptor
Altered emotion perception in insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences and schizotypal symptoms: a dataset
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0150-9274
Akram Umair uakram@lincoln.ac.uk

12
Stevenson Jodie 1
1 https://ror.org/03yeq9x20 grid.36511.30 0000 0004 0420 4262 School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
2 https://ror.org/052gg0110 grid.4991.5 0000 0004 1936 8948 Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
11 9 2024
11 9 2024
2024
11 99010 4 2024
2 8 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
This data resource provides evidence concerning the prevalence of perceptual alterations of emotional faces amongst individuals experiencing symptoms of insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences, and schizotypal tendencies. More specifically, we explored the categorisation accuracy (whether the displayed emotion was correctly identified), misperception (which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be), intensity (extent of the emotion signal strength) and emotional valence (the extent and direction of perceived affect) of six facial expressions of emotion from the Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces database. Complete data from N = 572 respondents are included. The dataset is available to other researchers and is provided on Figshare. Information concerning the data records, usage notes, code availability and technical validation are presented. Finally, we present demographic and correlational data concerning psychiatric symptoms and alterations in the perception of emotional faces.

Subject terms

Human behaviour
Risk factors
issue-copyright-statement© Springer Nature Limited 2024
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pmcBackground and Summary

Social perceptual judgments facilitate the evaluation of another person, particularly when drawing upon emotionally salient information1,2. Individuals use facial, vocal, gestural, and postural cues to communicate emotions to others; whilst also reading such cues to determine another’s’ internal state3,4. Here, visual processing of the human face remains the most prevalent source of information5. Indeed, facial observations provide vital information pertaining to distinguishing characteristics, perceived attractiveness, intended behaviour, and emotional state, without use of language6. Accordingly, the nature of facial expressions serves as a primary source of information in social perception7,8.

Accurate judgments of facially expressed emotion are vital for effective social interactions and non-verbal social judgments. Therefore, perceptual deficits associated with psychiatric symptoms may contribute to negative psychosocial consequences for those involved9. Perceptual alterations of emotional faces are widely established in psychiatric populations at both disorder and symptom level (e.g. insomnia, anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, anorexia nervosa, schizophrenia)10–15.

The present work sought to further examine the prevalence of perceptual alterations of emotional faces amongst individuals experiencing symptoms of insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences, and schizotypal tendencies. More specifically, we examined the categorisation accuracy (whether the displayed emotion was correctly identified), misperception (which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be), intensity (the strength of the emotion signal strength) and emotional valence (the extent and direction of perceived affect in relation to intrinsic appeal or repulsion) of all six cross-culturally accepted facial expressions of emotion16.

Methods

Sample and Design

The study was approved by the Sheffield Hallam University Research Ethics Committee (Protocol number: ER28407811), and all participants provided online informed consent. Students from two UK universities were recruited through institutional course participation schemes, social media groups and faculty emails. This resulted in a sample of N = 706 individuals who either began or clicked on a hyperlink to the survey which was delivered using the Qualtrics platform (Qualtrics, Provo, UT). Only complete cases were used in the analysis due to the ethical right to withdraw from the survey at any time. The data were also examined for duplicate responses based on matching IP addresses, where none were found. To maintain participant anonymity, IP addresses were subsequently discarded. In addition, no personally identifying information or contact details were recorded. Rather, subjects provided a memorable keyword at the start of the survey which was to be cited in any request to withdraw data. Therefore, N = 572 respondents (mean age = 21.71 ± 7.30 years, range 18–65, 76% female; 89% student) providing complete data for the variables of interest. All participants reported: normal to corrected-to-normal vision, the absence of prosopagnosia, being ≥18 years old.

Materials

Facial stimuli

Fifty-six facial photographs of eight individuals (50% female) displaying the emotional expressions of fear, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise, and neutrality were gathered from the Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces database17. In the present study, we chose to use all six cross-culturally accepted facial expressions of emotion16. These six expressions are commonly used to examine the perception of emotional faces in the context of psychiatric disorder. In line with previous studies controlling for potentially distracting and confounding factors, we cropped the hair and neckline from each image18–21. Thus, leaving a series of oval-shaped neutral facial images (see Fig. 1).Fig. 1 Example set of facial expressions.

Psychometric measures

Insomnia

Insomnia symptoms were assessed using the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)22. The ISI consists of seven items examining the severity of insomnia symptoms over the past 2 weeks including difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep and awakening too early. Items are scored on a 5-point likert-type scale, with total scores ranging from 0 to 28. Higher scores suggest greater insomnia severity. Total scores between 0 and 7 indicate no clinically significant insomnia, 8 and 14 subthreshold insomnia, 15 and 21 clinical insomnia (moderate severity), and 22 and 28 clinical insomnia (severe). Assessment of internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha) yielded an alpha of α = 0.88.

Anxiety

The 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) is a validated practical self-report anxiety questionnaire used in primary care23. The tool asks respondents how often, during the last 2 weeks, they have been bothered by each of the seven core symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Responses choice are 0 = “not at all”; 1 = “several days”; 2 = “more than half the days”; and 3 = “nearly every day”. Total scores range between 0 and 21 with cut offs of ≥5, ≥10, and ≥15 indicating mild, moderate, and severe anxiety levels, respectively. The GAD-7 has been shown to exhibit good reliability, as well as criterion, construct, factorial, and procedural validity23. The Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was α = 0.92.

Depression

The 9-item patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9)24 is a brief self-report depression scale used to assess depressive symptoms in the general population. Each of the nine depressive symptoms corresponds to the depression criteria of the DSM-V25. Respondents are required to indicate how much, during the previous 2 weeks, the symptom has bothered them on a scale of: 0 = “not at all”, 1 = “several days”, 2 = “more than half of the days” or 3 = “nearly every day”. Total scores indicate depression severity and range from 0 to 27 with higher scores indicating higher levels of depression. The scale has been shown to demonstrate good criterion and construct validity23,24. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was α = 0.91.

Mania

The Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ) was used to examine symptoms of mania (range 0–13)25. Participants provided a response of yes/no when presented with a series of prompting questions. For example, “Has there ever been a time when you were not your usual self and…”. The summation of each item yields a total MDQ score where higher scores indicate increased levels of manic symptoms. The internal consistency of the scale in the present study was α = 0.85. To screen positive for possible bipolar disorder, all three parts of the following criteria should be met based on the initial 13 items and two additional questions. More specifically, participants must answer yes to ≥7 of the thirteen items; indicate cooccurrence of ≥1 items within the same period; and report moderate to serious consequences of the possible episode (i.e., inability to work; family, monetary or legal difficulties; aggressive behaviour).

Psychotic like experiences

The Prodromal Questionnaire 16 (PQ-16) was administered to assess life-time symptoms of psychotic experiences26. It was developed as a brief version of the 92-item Prodromal Questionnaire26 to enable the detection of ultra-high-risk (UHR) patients in routine adult mental health services. Sixteen items evaluate the occurrence of positive/negative symptoms and avolition on a two-point scale (yes/no). In addition, symptom distress is measures on a four-point scale between: 0 = no distress and 3 = severe distress. More specifically, the PQ-16 contains nine items relating to hallucinations; five items relating to delusions; and two negative symptom items. The summation of ‘yes’ item responses yield a total score between 0 and 16, where higher scores indicate an increased number of psychotic symptoms. In adults, a score of ≥6 predicts diagnosis of psychosis with high sensitivity (87%) and specificity (87%)27. Similarly, distress items are summated to create a total prodromal severity scale. The Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was α = 0.85 for total scores and α = 0.90 for severity scores.

Schizotypal traits

The Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences scale examined schizotypal personality traits (O-LIFE)28. The 43-item measure is comprised of four subscales: unusual experiences (12-Items), cognitive disorganisation (11-items), introverted anhedonia (10-items), and impulsive nonconformity (10-items). The unusual experiences subscale examines positive symptoms related to psychosis (i.e., perceptual aberrations, magical thinking, hallucinations). Cognitive disorganisation explores disorganised features of psychosis (i.e., concentration difficulties, impaired decision-making, social anxiety). The introverted anhedonia subscale examines negative schizotypy, primarily characterised by a lack of physical and social pleasure (i.e., intimacy, social activities). Impulsive nonconformity measures diminished self-control (i.e., impulsive, anti-social, eccentric behaviour). All items utilise a two-point scale (yes/no). The summation of ‘yes’ item responses yield a total score for each respective subscale. The Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was α = 0.78 for unusual experiences, α = 0.81 for cognitive disorganisation, α = 0.70 for introverted anhedonia, and α = 0.70 for impulsive nonconformity.

Procedure

Participants completed an online questionnaire, in which they were presented with the series of fifty-six images in randomized order. For each face displayed, participants were asked to select (categorise) the corresponding emotional expression (fear, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise, and neutral). Subsequently, participants were asked to rate their perceived intensity and emotional valance on a 100-mm visual analogue scale. The intensity scale was anchored at not very intense and extremely intense. Whereas valence was anchored at extremely negative and extremely positive. Each face was displayed until a response was made. Following the completion of the face-task, participants completed the ISI, GAD-7, PHQ-9, MDQ PQ-16 and O-LIFE. The procedure lasted approximately thirty minutes. An example trial is presented in Fig. 2.Fig. 2 Example trial.

Data Records

The dataset (demographics, psychiatric measures) has been anonymised and both individual datapoints for each psychometric measure and face rating are available in CSV and SAV formats on Figshare (10.6084/m9.figshare.26397817)29 and as part of the current supplemental information (see Appendix A). For copyright reasons, the original PDF files including scoring information for each measure are not included in the appendix. However, the key scoring information is provided in the aforementioned measures section, and each original measure can be individually examined where necessary. In the current dataset, reverse coding was applied where required. Finally, the total/mean or composite score for each psychiatric symptom and perceptual judgments of emotional faces displaying each expression (accuracy, and intensity) were calculated and included to simplify the usability of the dataset. Descriptions of calculated variables are provided in Table 1. Details of the data cleaning procedure are available in the following section.Table 1 Variable codes for dataset.

Demographic Variables	
Age	Participant age	
Sex	Biological sex assigned at birth	
Gender	Gender identity	
Ethnicity – Ethnicity_5	Participant ethnicity	
Student_Status	Whether or not the participant was currently enrolled as a student	
Individual Psychometric Items	
ISI_1 – ISI_8	The seven individual items of the Insomnia Severity Index21	
GAD7_1 – GAD7_7	The seven individual items of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 722	
PHQ_1 – PHQ_9	The nine individual items of the Patient Health Questionnaire23	
Mania_1 – Mania_13	The thirteen individual items of the Mood Disorder questionnaire25	
Prodomal16_1 – Prodromal_16_16	The sixteen individual items of the Prodromal 1632	
Prodromal_Severity_1 - Prodromal_Severity_16	The sixteen individual items of the Prodromal 16 severity subscale32	
SCZ_UnusualExp1 - SCZ_UnusualExp12	The twelve individual items of the Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences – Unusual Experiences subscale27	
SCZ_CogDis_1 - SCZ_CogDis_11	The eleven individual items of the Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences – Cognitive Disorganisation subscale27	
SCZ_Anhed_1 - SCZ_Anhed_10	The ten individual items of the Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences – Introvertive Anhedonia subscale27	
SCZ_Nonconformity_1 - SCZ_Nonconformity_10	The ten individual items of the Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences – Impulsive Nonconformity subscale27	
Psychiatric Symptoms Scored	
GAD7_Anxiety	Summation of anxiety items	
PHQ9_Depression	Summation of depressive items	
MDQ_Mania	Summation of mania items	
ISI_Insomnia	Summation of insomnia items	
P16_Prodromal_Count	Summation of items assessing psychotic like experiences	
P16_Prodromal_Severity	Summation of items assessing psychotic like experiences	
Schizotypy_Unusual_Expereinces	Summation of items assessing unusual experiences	
Schizotypy_Cognitive_Disorganisation	Summation of items assessing cognitive disorganisation	
Schizotypy_Introvertive_Anhedonia	Summation of items assessing introvertive anhedonia	
Schizotypy_Impulsive_Nonconformity	Summation of items assessing impulsive nonconformity	
Perceptual Judgments	
F1AFC – F4AFC, M1AFC – M4AFC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying fear	
F1ANC – F4ANC, M1ANC – M4ANC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying anger	
F1DIC – F4DIC, M1DiC – M4DIC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying disgust	
F1HAC – F4HAC, M1HAC – M4HAC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying happiness	
F1SAC – F4SAC, M1SAC – M4SAC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying sadness	
F1SUC – F4SUC, M1SUC – M4SUC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of female/male faces displaying surprise	
F1NC – F4NC, M1NC – M4NC	Individual items for categorisation accuracy of neutral female/male faces	
F1AFI_1 – F4AFI_1, M1AFI_1 – M4AFI_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying fear.	
F1ANI_1 – F4ANI_1, M1ANI_1 – M4ANI_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying anger.	
F1DII_1 – F4DII_1, M1DII_1 – M4DII_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying disgust	
F1HAI_1 – F4HAI_1, M1HAI_1 – M4HA I_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying happiness	
F1SAI_1 – F4SA I_1, M1SAI_1 – M4SAI_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying sadness	
F1SUI_1 – F4SUI_1, M1SUI_1 – M4SUI_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of female/male faces displaying surprise	
F1NI_1 – F4NI_1, M1NI_1 – M4NI_1	Individual items for intensity ratings of neutral female/male faces	
F1AFV – F4AFV, M1AFV – M4AFV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying fear.	
F1ANV – F4ANV, M1ANV – M4ANV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying anger.	
F1DIV – F4DIV, M1DIV – M4DIV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying disgust	
F1HAV – F4HAV, M1HAV – M4HAV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying happiness	
F1SAV – F4SAV, M1SAV – M4SAV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying sadness	
F1SUV – F4SUV, M1SUV – M4SUV	Individual items for valance ratings of female/male faces displaying surprise	
F1NV – F4NV, M1NV – M4NV	Individual items for valance ratings of neutral female/male faces	
Intensity_Fear, Intensity_Anger, Intensity_Disgust, Intensity_Happiness, Intensity_Sadness, Intensity_Surprise, Intensity_Neutral	Mean intensity ratings based on the emotional expression observed	
Valance_Fear, Valance_Anger, Valance_Disgust, Valance_Happiness, Valance_Sadness, Valance_Surprise, Valance_Neutral	Mean emotional valence ratings based on the emotional expression observed	
Accuracy_Fear, Accuracy _Anger, Accuracy _Disgust, I Accuracy_Happiness, Accuracy _Sadness, Accuracy _Surprise, Accuracy_Neutral	Total accuracy scores when categorising the observed emotional expressions.	
Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness, Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Fear_TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed fear. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness, Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Anger_TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed anger. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness, Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Disgust_TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed disgust. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Happiness_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Happiness _TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Happiness _TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Happiness _TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Happiness _TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Happiness _TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed happiness. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Sadness_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Sadness_TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Sadness_TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Sadness_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness, Sadness_TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Sadness _TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed sadness. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Surprise_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Surprise _TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Surprise _TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Surprise_TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Surprise_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness, Surprise_TOTAL_MSP_Neutral	Misperception of facially expressed surprise. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Fear, Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Anger, Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Disgust, Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Sadness, Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Suprise, Neutral_TOTAL_MSP_Happiness	Misperception of neutral faces. Specifically, which emotion an incorrect judgment was perceived to be.	
Note: Insomnia, ISI: Insomnia Severity Index; Anxiety, GAD7: Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale; Depression, PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire; Mania: MDQ, Mood Disorder Questionnaire; Psychotic Experiences: Prodromal-16; Unusual Experiences, Cognitive Disorganisation, Introvertive Anhedonia, Impulsive Nonconformity: SF-OLIFE, Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences Questionnaire.

Technical Validation

For the current purpose, the SAV file was exported from the Qualtrics online survey platform (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) where the data was cleaned using SPSS v. 29.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NT, USA). Total ratings of accuracy were summated for each expression. For each trial, correct responses yielded a score of 1 whereas incorrect responses were scored as 0. Therefore, accuracy scores ranged between 0 to 8, with higher scores indicating greater categorisation accuracy of the assessed expression. Next, mean expression intensity ratings were calculated, and ranged between a possible 0 to 100 score, with higher scores indicating greater intensity ratings. Finally, mean emotional valence ratings were calculated, and ranged between a possible 0 to 100 score, with higher scores indicating more positively valanced ratings. Descriptive statistics for all calculated variables were inspected to ensure that results fell within an expected range. Whilst normality was assessed using histograms, it is vital to consider the inherent skew observed when examining psychiatric symptoms, where a traditional disruption would not be expected. As noted, reliability analysis was performed for each psychometric measure. Here, the internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of each scale remained acceptable. Examination of internal consistency for the intensity of each expression yielded α values between 0.82–0.92. Examination of internal consistency for the emotional valence of each expression yielded α values between 0.68–0.88. Examination of internal consistency for the categorisation before recoding was α = 0.46–0.67 after recoding. Therefore, the facial stimuli reliably depicted their corresponding expression with a degree of confidence (see Table 2 for each α value). The dataset was carefully inspected for abnormal response patterns and completion times before any formal analyses was conducted. Neither were observed. To facilitate the potential usability and consideration of further analysis of the current data set, the descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations), and Pearson’s bivariate correlations (two-tailed) between expression intensity, emotional valance, categorization accuracy and misperception scores with symptoms of insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences, and schizotypal traits are presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Significance was considered at the p < 0.05 level.Table 2 Mean ratings and standard deviations (SD), and corelations between insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences and schizotypal tendencies with ratings of categorisation accuracy and intensity ratings for each emotional expression.

	Mean ± SD	Fear	Anger	Disgust	Happiness	Sadness	Surprise	Neutral	
[Intensity Ratings]	
Mean ± SD		57.85 ± 13.87	60.88 ± 15.19	73.18 ± 13.77	62.16 ± 15.64	49.27 ± 15.03	59.72 ± 14.38	36.56 ± 21.92	
Cronbach’s α		0.82	0.85	0.86	0.89	0.82	0.84	0.92	
Insomnia	10.10 ± 6.40	0.118**	0.079	0.112**	0.027	0.108*	0.057	0.025	
Anxiety	7.66 ± 5.98	−0.030	−0.039	0.010	−0.057	−0.061	−0.076	−0.047	
Depression	9.91 ± 6.81	0.012	−0.029	0.063	−0.043	−0.010	−0.054	−0.061	
Mania	6.53 ± 3.82	−0.026	−0.087*	0.011	−0.052	−0.032	−0.050	−0.054	
Psychotic Experiences	5.79 ± 4.09	0.008	−0.070	0.013	−0.057	−0.002	−0.032	−0.037	
Prodromal Severity	8.54 ± 8.40	0.031	−0.045	−0.018	−0.078	0.028	−0.053	0.013	
Unusual Experiences	4.33 ± 2.90	−0.008	−0.060	−0.001	−0.048	−0.023	−0.030	0.023	
Cognitive Disorganisation	6.91 ± 3.05	−0.019	−0.023	0.094*	−0.044	−0.017	−0.047	−0.077	
Introvertive Anhedonia	2.97 ± 2.26	−0.050	−0.100*	−0.096*	−0.088*	−0.017	−0.069	−0.030	
Impulsive Nonconformity	3.92 ± 2.41	−0.105*	−0.132**	−0.043	−0.145**	−0.115**	−0.106*	−0.083*	
[Emotional Valance Ratings]	
Mean ± SD		37.27 ± 9.70	25.90 ± 12.61	24.81 ± 13.62	66.50 ± 10.86	31.39 ± 10.74	45.96 ± 8.75	45.55 ± 8.45	
Cronbach’s α		0.81	0.88	0.86	0.84	0.82	0.68	0.78	
Insomnia		0.013	−0.016	−0.018	−0.025	0.027	0.005	−0.068	
Anxiety		0.006	−0.008	−0.037	−0.025	0.077	0.036	−0.039	
Depression		−0.029	−0.031	−0.070	−0.040	0.048	0.048	−0.072	
Mania		−0.017	−0.033	−0.055	−0.031	−0.018	0.030	−0.094*	
Psychotic Experiences		0.053	0.065	0.015	−0.045	0.074	0.056	−0.028	
Prodromal Severity		0.069	0.106*	0.066	−0.110**	0.114**	0.049	−0.004	
Unusual Experiences		0.066	0.90*	0.086*	−0.077	0.111**	0.080	−0.029	
Cognitive Disorganisation		−0.050	−0.091*	−0.101*	0.060	−0.039	0.040	−0.070	
Introvertive Anhedonia		0.022	0.090*	0.089*	−0.140**	0.100*	0.026	−0.018	
Impulsive Nonconformity		−0.013	0.013	0.003	−0.126**	0.021	0.012	−0.106*	
[Categorisation Accuracy]	
Mean ± SD		2.44 ± 1.52	7.20 ± 1.19	7.05 ± 1.34	7.68 ± 0.86	5.30 ± 1.54	7.36 ± 1.00	6.52 ± 1.49	
Cronbach’s α^		0.48	0.57	0.62	0.67	0.46	0.49	0.59	
Insomnia		−0.085*	−0.077	0.014	−0.051	−0.044	0.017	−0.001	
Anxiety		−0.096*	−0.143**	−0.017	−0.092*	−0.079	−0.011	−0.067	
Depression		−0.011	−0.151**	0.004	−0.112*	−0.031	−0.042	−0.065	
Mania		−0.080	0.055	0.075	−0.034	−0.078	0.050	−0.034	
Psychotic Experiences		−0.088	−0.123**	0.059	−0.086*	−0.035	−0.013	−0.019	
Prodromal Severity		−0.103*	−0.220	−0.085*	−0.155**	−0.069	−0.059*	−0.075	
Unusual Experiences		−0.104*	−0.138**	0.049	−0.081	−0.059	0.021	0.000	
Cognitive Disorganisation		0.016	0.10	0.049	−0.019	−0.020	0.034	−0.009	
Introvertive Anhedonia		0.16	−0.083*	−0.107**	−0.139**	−0.043	−0.067	−0.047	
Impulsive Nonconformity		−0.57	−0.093*	0.011	−0.072	−0.092*	−0.048	−0.064	
Note: Insomnia, ISI: Insomnia Severity Index; Anxiety, GAD7: Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale; Depression, PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire; Mania: MDQ, Mood Disorder Questionnaire; Psychotic Experiences: Prodromal-16; Unusual Experiences, Cognitive Disorganisation, Introvertive Anhedonia, Impulsive Nonconformity: SF-OLIFE, Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences Questionnaire.

^After recoding into correct = 1, incorrect = 0.

*Sig at P < 0.05; **Sig at P < 0.01.

Table 3 Mean ratings and standard deviations (SD) for categorization accuracy and misperception for the whole sample.

Correct Expression	Fear	Anger	Disgust	Happiness	Sadness	Surprise	Neutral	
Misperceived as:	
Fear	2.42 ± 1.51	0.03 ± 0.18	0.07 ± 0.28	0.04 ± 0.21	0.73 ± 0.92	0.32 ± 0.61	0.08 ± 0.31	
Anger	0.28 ± 0.61	2.08 ± 1.14	0.48 ± 0.83	0.04 ± 0.39	0.19 ± 0.53	0.04 ± 0.38	0.42 ± 0.82	
Disgust	1.45 ± 1.17	0.43 ± 0.80	7.05 ± 1.34	0.04 ± 0.24	0.57 ± 0.93	0.06 ± 0.29	0.15 ± 0.44	
Happiness	0.02 ± 0.15	0.02 ± 0.14	0.02 ± 0.19	7.68 ± 0.86	0.02 ± 0.15	0.08 ± 0.29	0.07 ± 0.29	
Sadness	1.04 ± 0.87	0.16 ± 0.47	0.30 ± 0.62	0.07 ± 0.29	5.89 ± 1.48	0.04 ± 0.27	0.73 ± 0.87	
Surprise	2.66 ± 1.58	0.08 ± 0.33	0.05 ± 0.27	0.03 ± 0.18	0.58 ± 0.74	7.36 ± 1.00	0.03 ± 0.16	
Neutral	0.11 ± 0.39	0.07 ± 0.35	0.04 ± 0.23	0.10 ± 0.41	0.61 ± 0.81	0.11 ± 0.36	6.52 ± 1.49	

Table 4 Corelations between insomnia, anxiety, depression, mania, psychotic experiences and schizotypal tendencies with misperception scores for each emotional expression.

	MSP Fear	MSP Anger	MSP Disgust	MSP Happiness	MSP Sadness	MSP Surprise	MSP Neutral	
[Insomnia]	
Fear	—	−0.110*	0.088*	0.036	−0.006	0.047	0.048	
Anger	0.046	—	0.051	0.022	−0.006	0.047	0.074	
Disgust	−0.032	−0.017	—	0.066	−0.042	−0.044	0.137**	
Happiness	0.011	−0.047	−0.006	—	0.034	0.073	0.091*	
Sadness	0.010	−0.046	0.042	0.007	—	−0.026	0.076	
Surprise	−0.025	−0.034	0.023	0.011	−0.047	—	0.036	
Neutral	0.002	0.009	−0.010	0.038	−0.018	0.016	—	
[Anxiety]	
Fear	—	−0.090*	0.076	0.052	0.001	0.048	0.073	
Anger	0.113*	—	0.086*	0.087*	0.033	0.076	0.078	
Disgust	0.010	−0.013	—	0.073	0.008	−0.022	0.080	
Happiness	0.086*	−0.026	0.098*	—	0.011	0.033	0.091*	
Sadness	−0.018	0.008	0.068	−0.021	—	−0.016	0.105*	
Surprise	−0.022	−0.040	0.058	0.030	0.006	—	0.036	
Neutral	0.101*	−0.011	0.046	0.053	0.039	0.061	—	
[Depression]	
Fear	—	−0.116**	0.096*	0.034	0.017	−0.036	0.032	
Anger	0.101*	—	0.089*	0.061	0.025	0.115**	0.087*	
Disgust	−0.017	−0.020	—	0.065	−0.017	−0.018	0.087*	
Happiness	0.090*	−0.001	0.072	—	0.054	0.030	0.093*	
Sadness	−0.002	−0.021	0.056	−0.015	—	−0.022	0.105*	
Surprise	0.014	−0.052	0.063	0.071	−0.014	—	0.048	
Neutral	0.081	−0.008	−0.049	0.063	0.039	0.031	—	
[Mania]	
Fear	—	−0.068	0.092*	−0.030	−0.032	0.079	0.009	
Anger	0.043	—	0.086*	−0.039	0.038	0.027	0.026	
Disgust	−0.074	−0.050	—	−0.028	−0.055	−0.008	0.022	
Happiness	0.023	−0.062	0.042	—	0.005	0.043	0.044	
Sadness	0.010	−0.037	0.101*	−0.034	—	0.006	0.034	
Surprise	−0.053	−0.054	0.011	0.016	−0.061	—	0.033	
Neutral	0.040	0.005	0.011	−0.028	−0.045	0.020	—	
[Psychotic Experiences]	
Fear	—	−0.113	0.043	0.047	0.020	0.080	0.004	
Anger	0.079	—	0.070	0.001	0.088*	0.074	0.027	
Disgust	−0.021	−0.062	—	0.023	−0.034	−0.031	0.017	
Happiness	0.057	0.004	0.042	—	0.105*	0.060	0.019	
Sadness	0.043	−0.025	0.004	0.002	—	0.008	0.035	
Surprise	0.017	−0.061	−0.002	0.008	0.011	—	0.056	
Neutral	0.050	0.044	−0.010	−0.001	−0.025	0.014	—	
[Prodromal Severity]	
Fear	—	−0.063	0.0480.	0.198**	0.008	0.031	0.135**	
Anger	0.116**	—	0.091*	0.149**	0.137**	0.121**	0.119**	
Disgust	0.067	−0.010	—	0.135**	0.049	0.010	0.196**	
Happiness	0.066	0.035	0.076	—	0.066	0.068	0.133**	
Sadness	0.065	−0.014	0.008	−0.059	—	−0.013	0.059	
Surprise	0.014	−0.037	0.067	0.042	0.102*	—	0.085*	
Neutral	0.043	0.013	0.055	0.076	0.026	0.123**	—	
[Unusual Experiences]	
Fear	—	−0.111**	0.094*	0.062	−0.020	0.071	0.028	
Anger	0.112**	—	0.134**	−0.052	0.019	0.056	0.045	
Disgust	−0.015	−0.052	—	0.004	−0.040	−0.008	0.036	
Happiness	0.031	−0.013	0.033	—	0.069	0.086*	0.058	
Sadness	0.029	−0.037	0.010	0.044	—	0.040	0.049	
Surprise	−0.021	−0.049	−0.059	−0.042	−0.064	—	−0.004	
Neutral	0.004	0.060	−0.003	0.061	−0.084*	0.038	—	
[Cognitive Disorganisation]	
Fear	—	−0.142**	0.106*	−0.050	−0.033	−0.011	−0.019	
Anger	0.021	—	−0.026	−0.059	0.008	0.022	0.006	
Disgust	0.006	−0.053	—	−0.018	0.004	−0.045	−0.046	
Happiness	0.044	−0.086*	0.023	—	0.052	0.080	0.013	
Sadness	0.064	−0.039	−0.002	−0.038	—	−0.006	0.005	
Surprise	0.011	−0.093*	0.002	0.028	−0.048	—	−0.002	
Neutral	0.061	0.021	−0.035	−0.052	0.018	−0.042	—	
[Introvertive Anhedonia]	
Fear	—	0.030	−0.011	0.121**	0.017	−0.045	0.023	
Anger	0.061	—	0.007	0.069	0.019	0.072	0.111**	
Disgust	0.097*	0.057	—	0.087*	0.060	−0.003	0.067	
Happiness	0.046	0.069	0.062	—	0.111*	0.027	0.072	
Sadness	−0.001	0.005	0.062	0.033	—	−0.044	0.044	
Surprise	0.040	0.036	0.019	0.004	0.031	—	0.038	
Neutral	−0.007	0.025	0.003	0.108**	0.010	0.065	—	
[Impulsive Nonconformity]	
Fear	—	−0.107*	0.077	0.058	−0.062	0.054	0.055	
Anger	0.072	—	0.024	0.067	0.043	0.068	0.071	
Disgust	0.013	−0.049	—	0.053	0.001	−0.007	0.063	
Happiness	0.051	0.005	0.043	—	0.034	0.025	0.058	
Sadness	0.025	0.029	0.082	−0.015	—	−0.025	0.059	
Surprise	−0.012	−0.007	0.026	0.050	−0.014	—	0.107*	
Neutral	0.034	0.077	0.016	0.056	−0.006	0.028	—	
Note: Insomnia, ISI: Insomnia Severity Index; Anxiety, GAD7: Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale; Depression, PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire; Mania: MDQ, Mood Disorder Questionnaire; Psychotic Experiences: Prodromal-16; Unusual Experiences, Cognitive Disorganisation, Introvertive Anhedonia, Impulsive Nonconformity: SF-OLIFE, Short-Form Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences Questionnaire.

*Sig at P < 0.05; **Sig at P < 0.01.

Several strengths and limitations of the current data should be noted. The cross-sectional nature limits the ability to draw any definitive explanation when concerning causal relationships. Next, the sample was not homogeneous, including a disproportionate amount of data from young white female respondents. Finally, potential users of the current data should consider limitations associated with subjective assessments which rely on self-reported information. That said, all six cross-culturally accepted facial expressions of emotion were examined16,30, with the inclusion of data concerning the emotional valance and misperception of emotional expressions above the typical inclusion of only accuracy and intensity. Whilst similar studies typically focus on a smaller set of related symptoms, the present data provides perceptual judgments across a large domain of psychiatric symptoms. Often with large scale data collection, studies may employ scales single-item or bespoke in-house scales, which fail to capture symptom severity and specificity31. Accordingly, the current data provides a comprehensive assessment of psychiatric symptoms by using well validated scales with robust psychometric properties.

Usage Notes

Data have been deidentified and are presented in the same manner across data files, which can be imported into most compatible statistical software packages. As noted, the dataset includes all individual datapoints for each de-identifiable psychometric measure and perceptual judgment. For each validated questionnaire, the initial authors scoring instructions were followed to calculate the relevant total, composite, and subscale variables which may be of interest.

Acknowledgements

No funding was received for this research.

Author contributions

The experiment was designed and conceived by U.A. and J.S. Data was collected by U.A. and J.S. An initial version of the manuscript was written by U.A. Following, input was sought from J.S.

Data availability

Data is available on Figshare: 10.6084/m9.figshare.26397817.

Code availability

No custom code was used during the compilation of the dataset.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
==== Refs
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