
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)12602-3
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36571
e36571
Research Article
Phyto-ecological studies and distribution patterns of subfamily Polygonoideae in relation to edaphic factors across diverse ecological zones
Gillani Syed Waseem a
Ahmad Mushtaq ab
Ali M. Ajmal c
Zafar Muhammad zafar@qau.edu.pk
a⁎
Alkahtani Jawaher c
Makhkamov Trobjon d
Yuldashev Akramjon e
Mamarakhimov Oybek f
Khaydarov Khislat g
Botirova Laziza h
Kilic Omer i
Shaheen Hamayun j
Idrees Muhammad k
Sultana Shazia a
Manzoor Muhammad a
Majeed Salman al
a Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, 45320, Islamabad, Pakistan
b Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan
c Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
d Department of Forestry and Landscape Design, Tashkent State Agrarian University, 2 A., Universitet Str., Kibray District, 100700, Tashkent Region, Uzbekistan
e Department of Ecology and Botany, Andijan State University, 129, Universitet Str., 170100, Andijan, Uzbekistan
f Department of Ecological Monitoring, National University of Uzbekistan, University Street, Tashkent, 100174, Uzbekistan
g Institute of Biochemistry, Samarkand State University Faculty of Biology, Universitetsty Bulvvar Street-15, Smarkand, 140104, Uzbekistan
h Department of Medicinal Plants and Botany, Gulistan State University, 4, Micro-district, Gulistan, 120100, Sir- Darya Region, Uzbekistan
i Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy Vocational Sciences, Adiyaman University, Turkiye
j Department of Botany, University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, 13100, Pakistan
k College of Life Sciences, Neijiang Normal University, Neijiang, 641000, Sichuan, China
l Department of Botany, University of Mianwali, Mianwali, 42200, Pakistan
⁎ Corresponding author. zafar@qau.edu.pk
22 8 2024
15 9 2024
22 8 2024
10 17 e3657131 5 2023
17 8 2024
19 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
The species of the subfamily Polygonoideae is an essential component of temperate forests as well as the flora of the western Himalayan region. The aim of this research was to explore the taxonomic diversity, distribution patterns, and associated flora of Polygonoideae in relation to edaphic factors in various ecological zones in the Muzaffarabad division of the Kashmir Western Himalayan Region. We applied a random sampling approach for data collection from 10 different sites with a cumulative 780 quadrats to record the diversity of wild Polygonoideae species across the Muzaffarabad division between 2021 and 2022. This study revealed 279 plant species from 192 genera and 75 families associated with Polygonoideae, with the dominant families being Asteraceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae. Herbs were predominant in the investigated area, with a proportion of 72.40 %, followed by shrubs (9.68 %) and pteridophytes (8.24 %). The flora was dominated by therophytes (37.35 %), whereas nanophylls (37.28 %) were the most dominant leaf form. Persicaria, Rumex, and Polygonum genera were observed and collected from various ecological zones, while Bistorta, Fagopyrum, Oxyria, and Rheum were only collected from a single zone, representing a restricted niche. A total of 28 taxa from 8 genera were studied in the investigative subfamily Polygonoideae, with the majority being therophytes (57.14 %), followed by hemicryptophytes (28.57 %), and leaf form dominated by microphylls (50 %) and nanophylls (17.85 %). The average values for Shannon and Simpson's diversity for the reported plant communities were 0.96 and 3.53, respectively, whereas species richness averaged 2.43 and species evenness 0.92. The vegetation exhibited a relatively lower (<50) maturity, averaging 32.08. Deforestation, overexploitation for medicinal purposes, soil erosion, overgrazing, forest fires, and the expansion of agricultural fields were identified as major threats to floral diversity. A significant correlation was observed between elevation and soil nutrient parameters, where moisture content, SOC, SOM, TK, and TN ratios showed a positive correlation, while pH and TP showed a negative correlation. Polygonum paronychioides and Rumex alpinus were the least observed of Polygonoideae taxa, whereas 39 species were found to be threatened, having low (<0.2) IVI values and seeking immediate conservation efforts. Climate change and anthropogenic pressure may lead to a change in the composition patterns and threaten the Polygonoidae species. We suggest community-based initiatives and sustainable conservation measures to safeguard the floral wealth of the Western Himalaya.

Highlights

• Subfamily Polygonidae is an important floristic element in the study area.

• A total of 279 plant species have been recorded.

• Species richness and soil nutrient show a positive relation with elevation.

• Understanding the impact of anthropogenic influence on plant diversity.

Keywords

Anthropogenic pressure
Conservation
GIS
Species diversity
Western Himalayas
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

Polygonaceae is also known as the smartweed-buckwheat or knotweed family, and the type genus, Polygonum, was first used by Antoine L. de Jussieu in his 1789 book Genera Plantarum. The family name was drawn from the Greek terms poly, which means many, and goni, which means joint or knee, due to the presence of multiple swelling nodes on the stem [1]. Polygonaceae are mainly divided into three main subfamilies; Polygonoideae Eaton, Eriogonoideae Arn, and Symmerioideae Meisn. The subfamilies; Eriogonoideae and Polygonoideae were recently circumscribed by Sanchez and Kron [2]. The Polygonoideae subfamily includes shrub and herbaceous genera that grow monopodially. It is identified by characteristics like hyaline, chartaceous, membranaceous, or foliaceous ocreae; generally swollen nodes; flowers subtended by bracteoles but not encased in involucres; lenticular or trigonous achenes; and endosperm lobed or whole but not ruminating, farinaceous, or corneous [3]. The most distinctive characteristic of the Polygonoidae family is the presence of a membranous or hyaline sheath that unites the stipules to form a tube-like structure known as the “ochreate stipule.” This sheath is occasionally absent or very basic in the other Polygonaceae subfamily, Eriogonoideae [4]. Large-scale taxonomic issues in the Polygonaceae Juss. Have recently been handled by a number of investigations using molecular data, significant progress has been made in illuminating evolutionary relationships within this diverse family [[5], [6], [7]]. Polygonaceae family members are distributed throughout the globe, from the tropics to the arctic, but are mostly found in the northern temperate zone, and comprise about 1200 species and 48 genera [2,8]. The family in Pakistan is represented by 103 species and 19 genera, mostly from the Himalayas [9].

The Himalayas have been considered important global hotspots for biodiversity, containing a highly diverse mountainous environment with a diversity of both species richness and plant communities [10]. The Himalayan ecosystem is extremely rich and diversified, consisting of a wide range of forest types influenced by significant differences in height and climate, from the foothills to the alpine peaks. Altitude has a direct impact on the types of vegetation that exist [11,12]. The spatial variations of biodiversity along an elevational gradient is one of the important factor in biodiversity research [13]. Plant biodiversity forms the first trophic level in a forest ecosystem and hence needs proper quantification and documentation in relation to abiotic variables of the environment at both an individual and group level [14]. Phytosociological techniques are frequently used in the Himalayan region to assess the conservation status of species and prioritize conservation planning [15,16]. In addition to ecological indicators, it is possible to identify societal indicators and perceptions, which, when combined with an understanding of economic and traditional drivers, can be incredibly useful in developing conservation plans [[17], [18], [19], [20], [21]].

Researchers have been focused primarily in how different vegetation patterns relate to the elevation since the early 19th century [11]. Variations in species diversity along an environmental gradient have been a main ecological investigative topic in the last few years, explained by reference to productivity, climate, habitat heterogeneity and biotic interactions [22,23]. The variations in diversity and distribution, vegetation structure, and species richness are directly linked with variables like geographical location, human-forest interaction, productivity, and evolutionary competition [24,25]. The distribution of vegetation along the altitudinal-gradient controlled by various ecological factors, such as temperature, rainfall, and the availability of nutrients in the soil [26,27]. The formation of plant communities and their structure and composition depend on altitude and time within a region; however, slope, precipitation, and latitude are also considered as main factors [28]. Phytosociological research is essential for comprehending how plant populations change and interact with both living and non-living factors [29,30]. This information is crucial for conservation efforts, restoring degraded areas, and managing forest resources in the long term [31]. A quantitative analysis of vegetation in a forest ecosystem can provide information on species diversity, the organization of the community, the distribution of resources, and the relative abundance of species [32]. Changes in geography, landscape, and elevation create diverse microclimates that promote diversity and abundance in the varieties of plants that make up different plant communities [15,33,34].

Environmental factors including soil, anthropogenic activities, and climate influence patterns of diversity, composition, and vegetation structure [[35], [36], [37]]. Indicator values for various factors such as soil pH, moisture, and nitrogen content can be used to categorize different ecological groups [38,39]. The impact of soil pH on the species diversity, richness, and composition of the plant communities in a given area is a widely recognized ecological factor [40], while two most significant factors that restrict the species and types of plant communities in mountainous areas are altitude and aspect [41,42]. The interaction of different plant species and soil nutrients in mountainous regions has been examined in a few research studies [27,43,44] and has indicated that in a forest ecosystem, the availability of soil nutrients is essential for the growth of plants and biogeochemical processes. In terrestrial ecosystems, nitrogen (N), carbon (C), potassium (K), and phosphorus (P) are considered as essential soil nutrients for the different biological processes in plants [[45], [46], [47], [48], [49]]. The forest vegetation in the Himalaya region is reported to be vulnerable to climate change and experiencing significant ecological degradation as a result of anthropogenic pressure [10,41,50]. Anthropogenic activities, according to studies, are the primary cause of changes in diversity, distribution patterns, and species richness [51], which in turn influence edaphic and environmental variables [52,53]. Most of the botanical research conducted in Pakistan's Himalayas, documented by various studies [12,18,36,41,42,[54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59]], mainly focused on diversity and distribution, ethnobotanical investigations or writing floras. Only a few quantitative research studies [35,41,60,61] have been carried out to document the plant communities and their ecological context in relation to regional vegetation and patterns of biodiversity, but there has never been a study as detailed on a single family.

Three districts make up Division Muzaffarabad: Muzaffarabad, Neelum Valley, and Jehlum Valley. These are located in Pakistan's Azad Jammu and Kashmir in the western Himalayas. This area has a vast range of topography, including high elevation, an extensive diversity of species, significant endemism, and dense vegetation. Climate change poses serious threats to biodiversity, such as extreme changes in weather conditions, droughts, increases in temperature, and floods [62]. The subfamily Polygonoideae is a vital element of temperate forests as well as the flora of the western Himalayan region. A literature review reveals that no study has been done on subfamily Polygonoideae diversity, distribution patterns, and influence of edaphic factors in various ecological zones of the Himalayas. Due to climate change, most of the forest ecosystems in western Himalayan regions are vulnerable because this region is warming faster than the global rate [63]. Understanding and protecting these vulnerable ecosystems requires an understanding of the distribution pattern of the crucially important subfamily Polygonoideae in the study area. Therefore, this research is the first ever detailed investigation to evaluate the diversity and distribution patterns of Polygonoideae species locally and globally. The findings of this study will serve as the initial, comprehensive reference study for identification, classification, and conservation. The study hypothesized that the diversity and distribution of the subfamily Polygonoideae, along with associated flora, were strongly influenced by altitudinal variations, soil structure and composition, and anthropogenic pressure, and it was designed to investigate the following objectives: 1) To assess the diversity, distribution, and associated flora of the subfamily Polygonoideae species with respect to edaphic factors in various ecological zones (from subtropical to alpine) of the Western Himalaya region; 2) to investigate the functional traits (Life spectra and leaf type) of floral diversity; 3) to investigate the factors influencing the distribution of Polygonoideae species; 4) to assess the impact of anthropogenic pressure and provide a base line for future conservation of threatened taxa.

Addressing these research objectives can provide valuable ideas for planning and policymaking that can aid in conservation and sustainable forest management in the Himalayas.

2 Methodology

2.1 Study area

The study area lies between 33° and 35° North latitude and 73°–75° East longitude in the western Himalayan mountainous state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir [64]. The State of AJK covers an area of 13,297 km2 and is located in the north of Pakistan. Three rivers surround the area: the Neelum in the north, which has glacial emergence; the Kanhar in the west; and the Jhelum in the east. The study area has three distinct climatic zones: subtropical monsoon in the lower range, dry-moist temperate in the middle, and subalpine-alpine in the higher range. The winters are extremely cold, and the summers are hot at lower altitudes and comfortable at the higher altitudes [65]. From November to April, there is a lot of snow in the area above 1200 m above sea level. In summer, the observed average temperature ranges from 25 to 34 °C, and in winter, it ranges from 4 to 10 °C. In the monsoon area, an annual average rainfall ranges from 900 to 1300 mm, while in the monsoon-free region, it remains between 35 and 140 mm (https://www.pmd.gov.pk/en/). The summer season lasts from April to October, with temperature ranges of 10–25 °C. The precipitation that falls per year is approximately 1400 mm, with 60 % of that typically falling as snow during the winter and 40 % as rain during the summer [66]. Small-scale climate differences have been observed in the study area due to elevational shifts. The intense cold of the winters and the excessive heat of the summers generate quite a bit of temperature fluctuation to the north. In the summer, localized rain showers are common, and snow prevails in the study regions temperate to alpine ecological zones in the winter. The valley exhibits significant altitudinal, climatic, and topographical variations, leading to a wide variety of habitats: springs, lakes, marshes and swamps, plantation sites, forest lands, subalpine-alpine meadows, wetlands, permanent glaciers, and gravel-rocky mountain slopes [67]. The vegetation of the Kashmir Himalayas exhibits a diverse floristic composition, mainly due to habitat diversity. Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are the two major types that exist, including subtropical lowland vegetation, dry-moist temperate forests, and subalpine-alpine mountainous forests.

The family Polygonaceae plays a crucial ecological role across the diverse habitats, from subtropical to alpine zones, in the western Himalayan region of Kashmir. Polygonaceae members are vital ecological components of various ecosystems and perform dynamic functions such as providing habitat for diverse flora and fauna, controlling soil erosion, and recycling nutrients through the decomposition process. On the other hand, this family is economically important and is widely used as medicinal plants for the treatment of various ailments as well as food in the region [67]. We selected this family to examine its diversity, distribution patterns, and impact of human activities on the species because of its significance in various ecosystems of the western Himalayan region of Kashmir. In order to support future conservation efforts for the subfamily Polygonoideae, this evaluation attempts to provide the forest department and policymakers with preliminary data.

2.2 Vegetation sampling and data collection

In 3 districts of AJK, including Muzaffarabad, Jhelum Valley, and Neelum Valley, with an altitudinal range of 600–3850 m, extensive field samplings were conducted during 2021 and 2022 (Fig. 1). Field sampling was carried out with a specific preference for moist and microhabitats. To find the subfamily Polygonoideae species and associated flora, a preliminary survey was conducted in various ecological zones of Kashmir, western Himalayas, prior to the sampling process. It was followed by selecting 10 sites in various ecological zones of Kashmir in three districts, including Neelum, Muzaffarabad, and Hattian, to ensure that the maximum geographic range of the polygonoideae species of the polygonoideae species was covered. The quadrat method was used for vegetation sampling. Quadrats were laid down using systematic random sampling techniques along the three vertical transects, which were 100 m apart and parallel to one another, and were placed at specific intervals along each transect. The trees were sampled and recorded by 10 × 10 m2 quadrant samples along the chosen sites, 5 × 5 m2 for sampling of shrubs and 1 × 1 m2 for sampling of herbs. The study area comprises a hilly region with various ecological zones, as climatic variations and environmental features play a primary role in shaping the community structure along the elevation gradient [65]. Sites were selected by keeping in mind the abovementioned factors and their ecological influence on the distribution of subfamily Polygonoideae species from 600 to 3850 m. In order to cover as much of the diversity of microclimatic habitat as possible, quadrats were laid in four transects of varying height, with ten quadrats each collected at each site's north, south, east, and west aspects [63]. At least 30 and up to 120 quadrats were taken at each sampling site, making a total of more than 780 quadrats in the studied area. The primary phytosociological characteristics like frequency, density, and cover for the Polygonoideae species and associated flora were recorded at each site [57]. Diversity indices were used to quantify the analytical vegetation characteristics of the studied plant communities. The importance value index (IVI) was calculated by formula IVI = Relative Density + Relative Frequency + Relative Cover [68]. Each plant community name was assigned based on the first three dominant species. These dominant species have the highest importance value index among all studied species in that plant community. The Simpsons diversity index was calculated as D = ⅀ni (ni-1)/N (N-1), where ni = the number of individuals of one species and N = the number of individuals of all species [69]. Shannon's Wieners index was calculated as H = ⅀pi log pi, where pi = ni N, N = ⅀ni: total number of individuals of all species, and ni = number of individuals of a single species [70]. Species evenness was calculated as J = H/Ln S, where H = Shannon's Wieners index and S = total number of species [71]. Species richness was calculated as D = S/√N, where S is the total number of species and N is the total number of individuals of each species [72]. The community maturity index was calculated as CM = F/S, where F is the sum of the frequencies of all species and S is the total number of species [73]. The life form, biological spectrum, leaf size, and other significant phyto-ecological details of each species were recorded. The biological spectrum of the studied flora, including life forms and leaf spectra, was assessed using Raunkiaer's [74] classification system. The geographical features of the sampling sites, such as altitude, latitude, longitude, aspect, and slope, were recorded using a Global Positioning System (Garmin GPS, Model Oregon 700). The slope angle of each sampling site was determined using a clinometer. Plant samples were collected during field surveys, photographed, pressed, dried, preserved, and then mounted on herbarium sheets according to the recommended international standard size. The collected specimens were identified by Prof. Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad and deposited in the Herbarium of Pakistan (ISL) Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, using Plants of the World Online Flora (http://www.worldfloraonline.org/). The conservation status of species was assessed using the IUCN Red List (https://www.iucnredlist.org/en) [75].Fig. 1 Study area map of sampling sites in Division Muzaffarabad, Kashmir Western Himalaya.

Fig. 1

2.3 Soil analysis

Soil samples were collected from each transect, especially focusing on the distribution of Polygonoideae species at a sampled vegetation site, by randomly selecting samples weighing 250 g from a depth of 0–20 cm. The soil samples were collected using a post hole and screw auger and were prepared into composite soil samples for each sampling site. The soil samples were bagged and stored in airtight polythene bags, which were then air dried, ground, and filtered through a 2 mm sieve and kept for physiochemical analysis following Allen et al. [76] method. Percentages of the soil separates, e.g., sand, silt, and clay, were calculated, and textural classes were determined using the triangular diagram as per the U.S.D.A. system. A standard method Allen et al. [77] was used to determine the percentage of soil moisture. A digital pH meter was used to measure the pH of the soil samples [44]. The soil's electrical conductivity (EC) was determined by following Wilson and Bayley [78] method. The process of estimating the percentage of soil organic carbon (SOC) was conducted using the appropriate method of Walkley and Black [79]. The soil organic matter (SOM) was calculated by multiplying 1.724 (the Van Bemmelen factor) with SOC. Total nitrogen (TN) in %, was calculated by following the Kjeldahl procedure [80]. The total phosphorus (TP) in ppm was calculated by the method of Olsen [81] and the total potassium in ppm by Ref. [82].

2.4 Data analysis and GIS mapping

The collected field data for Polygonoideae and associated taxa from various ecological zones of the western Himalayan region of Kashmir was organised and processed using Microsoft Excel 2013 and SPSS 16.0. In order to demonstrate the relationship between ecological traits, Origin Pro 2023 was used in conjunction with PCA analysis, chord diagrams, and UPGMA (Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) Cluster Analysis (CA), using past software 4.10 version. The dendrogram analysis was performed based on phytosociological attributes, which include diversity indices (species richness, species evenness, Simpson diversity index, Shannon's diversity index, maturity index) and anthropogenic variables (deforestation, population pressure, fire, and soil erosion) [81]. Geographic information system software Arc GIS 10.8.2 was used for the geospatial analysis of species of subfamily Polygonoideae in 3 districts of AJK, including mapping of the study sites, slope and aspect class analysis, digital elevation modelling, grazing class analysis, and distribution pattern analysis by following the protocols of [55]. The GIS data was converted into GeoTIFF format, the data sheets were divided into smaller sections, and a digital boundary was created. The map indicating the inventory of Polygonoideae specimens was developed using GPS information recorded from each of the sampling sites. The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) coordinate system was used to set reference points for locating the selected study sites by Geo Referencing. The Digital Elevation model was created using PULSAR data with a resolution of 12.5 m.

2.5 Anthropogenic indicators

Grazing intensity, fire, cutting, and soil erosion were among the anthropogenic disturbance elements that were assessed and recorded in the field. The locations were divided into overgrazed, moderate, and low categories using visual cues such as animal feces, trampling, browsed plants, and hoof marks. Three categories were used to categorize the intensity of erosion: extremely eroded, moderate, and no/low [21]. The number of stumps in each sample plot was counted to determine the extent of deforestation [82]. The regeneration state of tree species was measured by counting the number of seedlings from each species. Fire intensity was determined using visible cues, such as brunt plant cover, in each sampling quadrat. Based on visual assessment, the degrees of anthropogenic disturbance at each site were graded on a four-point scale (0 = none, 1 = low, 2 = moderate, and 3 = high) [65].

3 Results

3.1 Biological spectrum and floristic analysis

A total of 279 plant species from 75 different families and 192 genera were studied in the Kashmir region of the western Himalayas during this study (Appendix A in supplementary data). The family with the highest number of species was Asteraceae, with a total of 36, followed by Polygonaceae with 28 species, Poaceae with 24 species, Rosaceae with 16 species, and Lamiaceae with 17 species. Additionally, there were 35 families with only one species each that were identified, such as Iridaceae, Juglandaceae, Taxaceae, and Vitaceae. The classification of plants based on habit is as follows: there are 202 species of herbs, 27 species of shrubs, 23 species of pteridophytes, 21 species of trees, 5 species of climbers, and 1 species of bryophytes. The study investigated that therophytes were the most common (107 species; 37.35 %). Hemicryptophytes were the second most abundant (64 species; 22.94 %), followed by geophytes (51 species; 18.28 %), nanophanerophytes (27 species; 9.68 %), phanerophytes (12 species; 4.30 %), megaphanerophytes (9 species; 3.23 %), lianas (5 species; 1.79 %), and chaemophytes (4 species; 1.43 %), depending on the species studied. In terms of leaf forms, the majority of the studied species had nanophylls (104 species; 37.28 %), followed by microphylls (98 species, 35.13 %), leptophylls (47 species; 16.85 %), mesophylls (26 species; 9.32 %), macrophylls (2 species; 0.72 %), and aphyllous (2 species; 0.72 %) (Fig. 2A and B). The Polygonoideae subfamily has a diverse range of biological spectrum, with the majority being therophytes (16 species), followed by hemicryptophytes (8 species), geophytes (3 species), and only one species classified as a nanophanerophyte. Among the leaf classes in this subfamily, there were 14 species that had microphylls as their dominant feature. Additionally, there were 5 species with nanophylls, 5 with mesophylls, 3 with leptophylls, and only 1 with megaphyll. The leading genus was Persicaria, accounting for 39.28 % of the total species, followed by Rumex with 28.57 % and Polygonum with 14.28 %, and all other remaining genera like Bistorta, Fagopyrum, Oxyria, and Rheum were recorded as monotypic and contributed 3.57 % each.Fig. 2 Chord diagram showing (A) life form of the investigated flora, (B) leaf form of the investigated flora.

Fig. 2

3.2 Diversity and distribution of Polygonoideae species

This study reported28 species of the subfamily Polygonoideae in Kashmir's western Himalayas, from an elevation range of 600–4000 m, including subtropical to alpine climatic vegetation (Table 1). Rumex hastatus was among the commonly found Polygonoideae species with the highest importance value index (4.67 IVI), with a distribution frequency of 20 % recorded from 2 out of the total of 10 sampling sites, followed by Persicaria maculosa with a 3.02 average IVI and recorded from 4 out of 10 sampling sites with a distribution frequency of 40 %, and Persicaria nepalensis was recorded from 6 sampling sites with a highest distribution frequency of 60 % and with an average (2.82 IVI). Rumex acetosa with 40 % distribution frequency and 2.23 IVI, and Polygonum plebium with 30 % distribution frequency and 1.87 IVI. The lowest average IVI was shown by Rumex alpinus (0.11 with a distribution frequency of 10 %, followed by Polygonum paronychioides (0.18 IVI), a distribution frequency of 10 %. Fagopyrum esculentum with 0.32 IVI and a distribution frequency of 10 % Persicaria longiseta has a 0.38 IVI and a distribution frequency of 10 %. The highest distribution frequency of 60 % was recorded in Persicaria nepalensis, followed by Rumex nepalensis, which was recorded from 5 of the 10 sampling sites with a distribution frequency of 50 % (Table 1). Most of the species revealed a 10 % distribution frequency (e.g., Koenigia nepalensis, Polygonum argyrocoleon, Persicaria barbata, Persicaria longiseta, and Rumex crispus) due to their restricted altitudinal range and different studied sites in a wide range of study areas in different ecological zones from subtropics to alpine forest vegetation. Life and leaf form classes for 279 plant species are given in (Fig. 2A and B), life and leaf form classes of investigated subfamily are given in (Fig. 3A and B) and (Table 1).Table 1 Details of subfamily Polygonoideae members, including locality, elevation, life form, and leaf form characteristics.

Table 1Taxa	Tribe	Locality
District	Elevation (m)	Species codes	Life Form	Leaf Form	DF (%)	Accession No.	
Subfamily Polygonoideae	
	Fagopyreae								
Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.		Muzaffarabad	1651	Fag-esc	Th	Me	10 %	ISL-133376	
	Persicariae								
Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene		Neelum Valley	3578	Bis-aff	G	N	10 %	ISL-133377	
Polygonum filicaule Wall. ex Meisn.		Muzaffarabad	3840	Koe-nep	Th	N	10 %	ISL-133378	
Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene		Jhelum Valley	3093	Per-amp	G	Mi	40 %	ISL-133379	
Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara		Muzaffarabad	668	Per-bar	Th	Mi	10 %	ISL-133380	
Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross.		Muzaffarabad	2291	Per-cap	Th	Mi	40 %	ISL-133381	
Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre		Muzaffarabad	1841	Per-hyd	H	Mi	20 %	ISL-133382	
Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Delarbre		Muzaffarabad	1626	Per-lap	H	Mi	20 %	ISL-133383	
Persicaria longiseta (Bruijn) Kitag.		Jhelum Valley	2136	Per-lon	Th	N	10 %	ISL-133384	
Persicaria maculosa Gray		Muzaffarabad	2811	Per-mac	Th	Mi	10 %	ISL-133385	
Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) Miyabe		Muzaffarabad	3264	Per-nep	Th	Mi	40 %	ISL-133386	
Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach		Neelum Valley	2150	Per-ori	Th	Mi	60 %	ISL-133387	
Persicaria runcinata (Buch.-Ham.) H.Gross				Per-run	Th	Me	10 %	ISL-133388	
Persicaria sinuata (Royle ex Bab.) Rajbh. & R.Joshi		Jhelum Valley	2380	Per-sin	Th	Mi	10 %	ISL-133389	
	Polygoneae								
Polygonum argyrocoleon Steud. ex Kunze		Jhelum Valley	1634	Pol-arg	Th	L	10 %	ISL-133433	
Polygonum aviculare L.		Muzaffarabad	3145	Pol-avi	Th	N	40 %	ISL-133434	
Polygonum paronychioides C.A. Mey.			1410	Poly-par	Th	L	10 %	ISL-133435	
Polygonum plebeium R.Br.		Muzaffarabad	697	Pol-ple	Th	L	30 %	ISL-133436	
	Rumiceae								
Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill.		Jhelum Valley	3267	Oxy-dig	Th	Mi	20 %	ISL-133437	
Rheum webbianum Royle.		Neelum Valley	3044	Rhe-web	G	Mac	20 %	ISL-133438	
Rumex acetosa L.			3140	Rum-ace	H	Mi	40 %	ISL-133439	
Rumex alpinus L.		Muzaffarabad	2819	Rum-alp	H	Me	10 %	ISL-133440	
Rumex chalepensis Mill.		Muzaffarabad	651	Rum-cha	H	Me	10 %	ISL-133441	
Rumex crispus L.		Neelum Valley	1404	Rum-cri	H	Mi	10 %	ISL-133442	
Rumex dentatus L.		Muzaffarabad	735	Rum-den	H	Mi	10 %	ISL-133443	
Rumex hastatus D.Don.		Neelum Valley	1650	Rum-has	NP	Mi	20 %	ISL-133444	
Rumex nepalensis Spreng		Muzaffarabad	3067	Rum-nep	H	Me	50 %	ISL-133445	
Rumex scutatus L.		Neelum Valley	3119	Rum-scu	Th	N	20 %	ISL-133446	
Abbreviations: Th = Therophytes, H = Hemicryptophytes, NP = Nanophenarophytes, G = Geophytes, N = Nanophylls, Me = Megaphylls, Mi = Microphylls, Mac = Macrophylls, L = Leptophylls.

Fig. 3 (A, B) Classification of 28 Polygonoideae taxa. The outline represents the life form and leaf form linked with Raunkiaer life and leaf form categories.

Fig. 3

3.3 Altitudinal range of the Polygonoideae species

The geographical range of Polygonoideae species indicated that they primarily inhabit aquatic and damp environments. The study area revealed the presence of Polygonoideae species within an altitude range of 600–3850 m (Fig. 4), indicating that altitude has a significant impact on the distribution pattern of these species (Table 1). Three genera were the most common, namely Persicaria, Rumex, and Polygonum. These were observed and collected across a broad range of altitudes. The species of the other 5 genera were the least observed, including Bistorta, Fagopyrum, Oxyria, and Rheum. Some studied taxa within this subfamily were limited to a single ecological climate zone and consequently exhibited a restricted range of elevations, while others had a wider range of elevations across various climate zones. Persicaria nepalensis, Persicaria maculosa, and Rumex nepalensis were found to have a wide distribution across various altitudes, ranging from subtropical and lower temperate regions to upper temperate, subalpine, and alpine zone throughout the study area (Fig. 5). The only species collected was Rumex nepalensis, which was present throughout the study area at a wide range of altitudes, from 600 to 3850 m, in various climatic conditions. The genus Fagopyrum (Fagopyrum esculentum) is limited to the temperate zone and has a specific elevation range of 1500–1800 m. Additionally, it was only collected from one sampling site. Persicaria barbata, Rumex crispus, Rumex chalepensis, and Rumex dentatus were found only in areas with a subtropical climate and below an elevation of 1200 m. On the other hand, Fagopyrum esculentum, Persicaria lapathifolia, and Rumex hastatus were observed and distributed across an altitude range of 1300–1800 m within the lower temperate zone. The habitat of Persicaria sinuata was limited to a narrow altitudinal range between 2350 and 2700 m. The following six species: Bistorta amplexicaulis, Persicaria capitata, Persicaria longiseta, Persicaria hydropiper, Persicaria orientalis, and Polygonum argyrocoleon were observed and collected within a range of 1600–2800 m. The species Oxyria digyna, Polygonum aviculare, Rumex alpinus, and Rumex scutatus were distributed from an elevation range of 2700–3500 m in the upper temperate-alpine zone (Table 1).Fig. 4 Digital elevation model representing the elevational distribution of Polygonoideae species in AJK.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5 GIS map for aspect classification of investigated area.

Fig. 5

3.4 Associated flora and plant communities

A total of 10 plant communities and associated flora were studied for the thorough evaluation of Polygonoideae subfamily species. The studied communities showed an average species count of 45.1 species per site, with significant variations among sites with a minimum of 28 and a maximum of 71 species. The average Shannon diversity value throughout the study sites varied from 1.23 to 3.96, while the average Simpson diversity value was 0.96, with minimal variance among the sites. The results showed that the average species richness for all communities was 2.43, with a substantial variance ranging from 1.77 to 3.05. The average species evenness for the communities under investigation was 0.92, but the maturity index value was a dismal 32.08. Lower elevations had the highest pH, whereas higher elevations showed the lowest pH. It was discovered that elevation causes increases in the SOM, soil moisture levels, soil organic matter (C and N), and K concentrations. Results showed that increased nitrogen and carbon levels indicate that there is more nitrogen available in the material that makes up the forest floor. Soil erosion in the studied communities was mainly observed due to anthropogenic activities such as road construction and deforestation. Most of the sampled communities exhibited a moderate level of deforestation in the study area (Fig. 6). All plant communities that were identified were named based on the plant species with the highest IVI values. These communities, along with the closely related plant species, are described in detail below.Fig. 6 GIS map showing the deforestation intensity in the study area.

Fig. 6

3.4.1 Community 01 (PDZ: Pinus-Dodonaea-Zanthoxylum community)

This sub-tropical plant community was studied in Muzaffarabad City at an elevation range of 608–830 m, from a northern aspect with class 1 (0–30°) slope exposure (Fig. 5). The study area was in the vicinity of massive human settlements along the river Neelum. The plant community comprised 90 quadrats with 46 species, including 5 taxa of the targeted subfamily Polygonoideae, e.g., Persicaria barbata, Rumex chalepensis, Rumex dentatus, and Rumex nepalensis. The top indicator species in this community were Pinus roxburghii (56.91 IVI), Dodonaea viscosa (53.29 IVI), and Zanthoxylum alatum (40.47 IVI). The codominant species in the PDZ community were Oxalis corniculata, Ailanthus altissima, Persicaria barbata, Tagetes minuta, Rumex chalepensis, and Pteris vittata. The diversity indices for this were Shannon (3.56), Simpson (0.97), species richness (2.7), species evenness (0.95), and maturity index (29.83) (Table 2). This community was also influenced by soil mechanical and physico-chemical factors like silt fraction (45.37 ± 8.14 %), highest pH was recorded in this group (8.29), electrical conductance (0.26 ± 0.01 mScm−1), soil moisture (28.49 ± 7.91 %), organic carbon (0.41 ± 0.05 %), organic matter (0.70 %), lowest total nitrogen (0.25 ± 0.01 %), highest phosphorus (4.10 ± 1.12 ppm), and also lowest soil total potassium (132 ± 13.75 ppm) (Table 3). The soil of the study site was moderately eroded and placed in class 2 (moderate erosion). Intense grazing and maximum population pressure were recorded and placed in class 3 (maximum). Deforestation (Fig. 6), Fire and regeneration were categorized as being in class 1 (low) as in (Table 2). This is a snowfall-free plant association site. Summers are long and winters are short, so they are supportive for the richness of vegetation, but anthropogenic activities lead to a large decline in species richness.Table 2 Quantitative phytosociological attributes of investigated communities, detailing diversity indices, analyzed to understand community structure and ecological interactions.

Table 2Site Name	Community Name	Species of Investigated subfamily	Location	Aspect	Altitude (m)	No. of species	Shannon Diversity Index	Simpson
Diversity Index	Species Richness	Species Evenness	Maturity index	Slope	Soil Erosion	Grazing	Fire	Deforestation	Population pressure	Regeneration	
Site 1	Pinus-dodonaea-Zanthoxylum	P.barbata, R. chalepensis, R. dentatus, R. nepalensis	Muzaffarabad	North	608–830	46	3.56	0.97	2.7	0.95	29.83	1	2	3	1	1	3	1	
Site 2	Pinus -Viburnum-Berberis	P. nepalensis, P. aviculare, R. acetosa, O. digyna, P. capitata, B. amplexicaulis	Peer Chenasi	North Western	2500–2700	36	3.69	0.97	2.55	0.97	30.52	2	1	2	2	2	2	2	
Site 3	Allium-Rosa-Berberis	B. affinis, P. filicaule, P. aviculare	Makra peak	North	3600–3850	35	3.72	0.97	2.54	0.94	34.31	2	2	2	0	0	1	0	
Site 4	Pinus-Rumex-Quercus	P. plebium, P. argyrocoleon, P. lapathifolia, P. hydropiper, F. esculentum, P. maculosa, P. nepalensis, P. paronychioides	Narri Syedan	North	1606–1852	51	3.96	0.98	3.05	0.95	28.2	1	2	3	2	3	3	2	
Site 5	Pinus- Viburnum- Abies	R. acetosa, P. aviculare, R. nepalensis	Peer Hasimarr	North Eastern	2641–2866	28	3.67	0.97	2.78	0.93	30.57	2	1	2	1	2	2	3	
Site 6	Cedrus –Berberis-Viburnum	P. nepalensis, P. maculosa, P. capitata, B. amplexicaulis, P. hydropiper, P. runcinate, R. nepalensis	Upper Neelum	North	1764–2035	55	3.89	0.96	2.64	0.91	24.88	2	2	2	1	2	3	2	
Site 7	Betula-Abies-Rosa	R. scutatus, P. amplexicaule, R. acetosa, R. webbianum, R. alpinus	Shounthar	North	3005–3320	71	1.51	0.95	2.05	0.74	25.7	2	1	2	0	2	2	2	
Site 8	Abies –Pinus- Viburnum	P. sinuate, P. orientalis, P. longiseta, R. nepalensis, P. capitata, P. nepalensis	Taobut	North	2110–2404	41	1.23	0.87	2.42	0.75	21.93	1	2	2	1	2	3	3	
Site 9	Abies-Picea-Pinus	R. webbianum, R. acetosa, B. amplexicaulis, O. digyna, P. maculosa, P. aviculare, P. capitata, R. scutatus, P. nepalensis	Leadra Mali	North Western	2722–3000	52	1.59	0.97	2.78	0.93	30.57	2	1	2	0	3	2	3	
Site 10	Isodon–Quercus-Olea	P. plebium	Chakothi	North Eastern	1225–1460	36	3.08	0.94	1.77	0.88	35.83	3	2	2	2	2	3	1	
							3.53	0.96	2.43	0.92	32.08								

Table 3 Soil mechanical and physio-chemical properties, including texture, pH, organic matter, nutrients, and bulk density, analyzed across different sampling sites.

Table 3Soil variable	Site 1	Site 2	Site 3	Site 4	Site 5	Site 6	Site 7	Site 8	Site 9	Site 10	
Mechanical analysis	
Gravel, %	2.13 ± 0.05	1.86 ± 0.08	3.65 ± 1.25	0.39 ± 0.01	2.91 ± 1.16	7.54 ± 1.16	5.06 ± 2.24	4.97 ± 1.31	2.40 ± 0.23	0.65 ± 0.02	
Coarse sand, %	3.76 ± 1.35	5.46 ± 1.48	13.28 ± 5.28	1.01 ± 0.12	8.17 ± 3.02	15.56 ± 1.34	9.67 ± 3.14	8.39.25 ± 2.17	7.61 ± 0.08	1.18 ± 0.7	
Fine sand, %	16.71 ± 2.29	26.63 ± 5.73	44.80 ± 10.6	4.05 ± 1.36	33.24 ± 7.47	54.49 ± 9.62	33.15 ± 5.88	37.64 ± 7.98	30.63 ± 9.07	3.06 ± 0.19	
Silt, %	45.37 ± 8.14	43.95 ± 12.39	26.28 ± 6.70	42.86 ± 7.12±	53.35 ± 8.93	21.14 ± 4.3	41.75 ± 12.36	36.19 ± 9.12	46.19 ± 5.20	57.63 ± 10.71	
Clay, %	31.75 ± 3.66	19.30 ± 4.68	2.68 ± 1.61	51.31 ± 12.04	1.03 ± 04	0.81 ± 0.06	10.85 ± 3.18	10.84 ± 2.86	12.06 ± 3.31	35.24.5 ± 52	
Soil texture	Silt-clay loam	Loamy	Sandy-silt	Clay-silt	Clay-sandy	Sandy loam	Silt-sandy loam	Loam sand	Silt-sandy loam	Silty-clay	
Physico-chemical analysis	
PH	8.29	6.63	5.81	7.14	6.38	6.65	5.98	6.39	6.27	7.64	
Ec (mScm−1)	0.26 ± 0.01	1.12 ± 0.24	1.32 ± 0.52	0.31 ± 0.05	0.52 ± 0.08	0.68 ± 0.04	1.23 ± 0.19	0.77 ± 0.02	0.88 ± 0.05	0.43 ± 0.02	
Soil moisture (%)	28.49 ± 7.91	39.54 ± 10.26	37.46 ± 13.13	34.84 ± 8.34	38.48 ± 6.56	30.78 ± 7.32	41.35 ± 11.49	37.91 ± 9.46	39.29 ± 10.19	29.28 ± 7.14	
Organic carbon (%)	0.41 ± 0.05	1.12 ± 0.07	0.93 ± 0.04	0.43 ± 0.02	1.06 ± 0.15	0.56 ± 0.06	1.15 ± 0.35	0.45 ± 0.01	1.09 ± 06	0.48 ± 0.02	
Organic matter (%)	0.70	1.93	1.60	0.74	1.82	0.96	1.98	0.77	1.87	0.82	
Total nitrogen (%)	0.25 ± 0.01	0.35 ± 0.03	0.48 ± 0.02	0.29 ± 0.01	0.41 ± 0.5	0.39 ± 0.07	0.49 ± 0.08	0.38 ± 0.01	0.33 ±0 .04	0.34 ± 03	
Total phosphorus (PPM)	4.10 ± 1.12	3.27 ± 0.25	3.05 ± 1.02	3.65 ± 0.05	3.49 ± 0.08	3.89 ± 1.32	3.24 ± 0.04	3.74 ± 0.11	3.50 ± 1.25	3.95 ± 0.15	
Total potassium (PPM)	132 ± 13.75	154.49 ± 16.81	163.17 ± 10.89	142.09 ± 14.37	147.60 ± 19.01	149.05 ± 11.28	165.91 ± 8.52	141.45 ± 14.07	150.48 ± 9.36	136.76 ± 11.59	
Note: All data presented in the table are expressed as mean ± SE (Standard Error).

3.4.2 Community 02 (PVG: Pinus-Viburnum-Grandiflorum community)

This plant community was studied at an elevation of 2500–2700 m from the northwestern aspect and slope with class 2 (30–60°). The PVG community included 36 different plant species from 60 quadrats. Among these, 6 species were from the investigated subfamily: Persicaria nepalensis, Polygonum aviculare, Rumex acetosa, Oxyria digyna, Persicaria capitata, and Bistorta amplexicaulis. The codominant species in the PVG group were: Debregeasia saeneb, Aristida abnormis, Setaria pumila, Prunella vulgaris, and Artemisia vulgaris. The dominant species of this plant association were Pinus wallichiana (48.87 IVI), Viburnum grandiflorum (30.58 IVI), and Berberis lyceum (29.26 IVI). The diversity indices, including Shannon (3.69), Simpson (0.97), species richness (2.55), evenness (0.97), and maturity index (30.52), were being recorded as such (Table 2). The soil mechanical and physico-chemical factors were recorded, including silt fraction (43.95 ± 12.39 %), soil pH (6.63), electrical conductance (1.12 ± 0.24 mScm−1), soil moisture (39.54 ± 10.26 %), higher organic carbon (1.12 ± 0.07 %), organic matter (1.93 %), concentration of nitrogen (0.35 ± 0.03 %), phosphorus (3.27 ± 0.25 ppm), and a relative higher potassium concentration (154.49 ± 16.81 ppm) (Table 3). The soil at this sampling site was less eroded and placed in Class 1 (less or minimum erosion). The classes of deforestation, fire, grazing, population pressure, and regeneration were determined as moderate, which falls under class 2 (Table 2).

3.4.3 Community 03 (ARB: Allium-Rosa-Berberis community)

This alpine association was recorded in the northern mountainous regions of the study area, with a class 2 slope exposure (30–60°), and it was found to have the highest elevation (3600–3850 m) compared to all other groups. It comprised 60 sampling quadrats and 35 plant species, including 4 species of Polygonoideae: Bistorta affinis, Polygonum filicaule, Persicaria nepalensis, and Polygonum aviculare (Fig. 7). The leading species were Allium jacquemontii (37.54 IVI), Rosa webbiana (31.45 IVI), and Berberis aitchisonii (24.78 IVI). Diversity indices were being recorded as: Shannon (3.72), Simpson (0.97), richness (2.54), evenness (0.94), and maturity index (34.31) (Table 2). The codominant species in the ARB community included Sibbaldia procumbens, Trifolium pretense, Lonicera webbiana, Juniperus communis, and Aster himalaicus. The edaphic factors were recorded as follows: fine sand (44.80 ± 10.6 %), lowest soil pH (5.81), highest electrical conductance (1.32 ± 0.52 mScm−1), soil moisture (37.46 ± 13.13 %), organic carbon (0.93 ± 0.04 %), organic matter (1.60 %), nitrogen (0.48 ± 0.02 %), lowest phosphorus (3.05 ± 1.02 ppm), and a higher potassium concentration (163.17 ± 10.89 ppm) (Table 3). The soil erosion and grazing classes were recorded as being in class 2 (moderate). Class 0 prohibited deforestation, fire, and regeneration (no fire, deforestation, fire, and regeneration). Winters are longer and summers are shorter, so they are not supportive of the diverse richness of vegetation but was full of endemism and highly medicinal plants.Fig. 7 Heatmap representing the distribution patterns of subfamily Polygonoideae species (where the first three letters of the genus and species are used as codes) studied sites where red colour shows the presence of species at their specific site and blue colour shows the absence of species at their respective sites.

Fig. 7

3.4.4 Community 04 (PVQ: Pinus-Rumex-Quercus community)

This community included 90 quadrats and 51 species with an elevation between 1606 and 1852 m on a north-facing aspect with a slope class of 1 (0–30°). The investigated subfamily included Polygonum plebium, Polygonum argyrocoleon, Persicaria lapathifolia, Persicaria hydropiper, Fagopyrum esculentum, Persicaria maculosa, Persicaria nepalensis, and Polygonum paronychioides (Fig. 7). The dominant species of this community were Pinus wallichiana (39.87 IVI), Rumex hastatus (29.59 IVI), and Quercus incana (27.65 IVI). The codominant species in the PVQ community were Duchesnea indica, Amaranthus viridus, Mentha longifolia, Cedrus deodara, and Juglans regia. The values for diversity indices were being calculated, including Shannon (3.96), Simpson (0.98), species richness (3.05), species evenness (0.95), and maturity index (28.2) (Table 2). Different soil variables were recorded, like clay (51.31 ± 12.04 %), relatively higher pH (7.14), low electrical conductance (0.31 ± 0.05 mScm−1), soil moisture (34.84 ± 8.34 %), organic carbon (0.43 ± 0.02 %), organic matter (0.74 %), a lower concentration of nitrogen (0.29 ± 0.01 %), phosphorus (3.49 ± 0.08 ppm), and potassium concentration (147.60 ± 19.01 ppm) (Table 3). The anthropogenic factors like deforestation, grazing, and population pressure were recorded in class 3 (maximum). Soil erosion, fire, and regeneration were recorded in class 2 (moderate).

3.4.5 Community 05 (PVA: Pinus-Viburnum-Abies community)

This plant community was found to be establishing itself in the northeastern parts of the study area at an elevation ranging from 2641 to 2866 m. It comprised a total of 28 species from 60 sampling quadrats, and the slope was between 30 and 60° in class 2. The species of Polygonoideae included Rumex acetosa, Polygonum aviculare, and Rumex nepalensis (Fig. 7). The dominant species in the PVA group were Pinus wallichiana (55.02 IVI), Viburnum grandiflorum (45.16 IVI), Abies pindrow (38.23 IVI), and codominant species included Viola odorata, Geranium wallichianum, Salix flabellaris, Aristida funiculate, Bromus japonicas, and Geranium pretense. The diversity indices for Shannon (3.67), Simpson (0.97), richness (2.78), evenness (0.93), and maturity index (30.57) were recorded (Table 2). The PVA community was also affected by soil mechanical and physico-chemical variables: higher silt content (53.35 ± 8.93 %), pH (6.38), electrical conductance (0.52 ± 0.08 mScm−1), soil moisture (38.48 ± 6.56 %), higher concentration of organic carbon (1.06 ± 0.15 %), organic matter (1.82 %), moderate total nitrogen (0.41 ± 0.5 %), phosphorus (3.49 ± 0.08 ppm), and potassium (147.60 ± 19.01 ppm) (Table 3). The soil erosion and fire were observed as class 1 (minimum). Deforestation (Fig. 6), and grazing intensity were recorded in class 2 (moderate). The regeneration capacity was in class 3 (maximum).

3.4.6 Community 06 (CBV: Cedrus–Berberis-Viburnum community)

This community was studied at an elevation range of 1764–2035 m on a slope with a 30–60° aspect facing north, near the main human settlement. The community comprises 90 quadrats and 55 plant species. Subfamily Polygonoideae comprises Persicaria nepalensis, Persicaria maculosa, Persicaria capitata, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Persicaria hydropiper, Persicaria runcinata, and Rumex nepalensis (Fig. 7). This community was dominated by Cedrus deodara (47.18 IVI), Berberis lycium (22.56 IVI), and Rumex hastatus (17.10 IVI). The codominant species in the CBV were Poa annua, Duchesnea indica, Indigofera heterantha, Fragaria nubicola, and Quercus incana. The Shannon and Simpson's diversity of the association were recorded as 3.89 and 0.96. The values for the species richness, evenness, and maturity were calculated as 2.64, 0.91, and 24.88, respectively (Table 2). The edaphic factors were recorded as follows: fine sand (54.49 ± 9.62 %), pH (6.65), electrical conductance (0.68 ± 0.04 mScm−1), low soil moisture (30.78 ± 7.32 %), organic carbon (0.56 ± 0.06 %), organic matter (0.96 %), nitrogen (0.39 ± 0.07 %), relatively higher phosphorus contents (3.89 ± 1.32 ppm), and potassium concentration (149.0511.28 ppm) (Table 3). The deforestation, grazing intensity, regeneration capacity, and soil erosion were considered to be in class 2 (moderate). Fire was recorded in class 1 (minimum), while population pressure was in class 3 (maximum).

3.4.7 Community 07 (BAR: Betula-Abies-Rosa community)

The BAR plant community was found to be establishing on the north slope (0–30°) of the study area at an elevation ranging from 3005 to 3320 m. It comprised a total of 71 species, including 5 species from the investigated subfamily, from 120 sampling quadrats. The species from the targeted subfamily included Rumex scutatus, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Rumex acetosa, Rheum webbianum, and Rumex alpinus (Fig. 7). The dominant species in this community were Betula utilis (49.37 IVI), Abies pindrow (18.01 IVI), and Rosa pendulina (14.79 IVI). The codominant species were, Fragaria nubicola, Caprifolium obovatum, Juniperus communis, Senecio chrysanthemoides, and Hackelia uncinata. The values for diversity indices were being calculated, including lower Shannon (1.51), Simpson (0.95), species richness (2.05), low species evenness (0.74), and also a low maturity index (25.7) (Table 2). The soil factors were recorded as: highest concentration of silt (41.75 ± 12.36 %) with silty-sandy loam soil texture, lower pH (5.98), electrical conductance (1.23 ± 0.19 mScm−1), soil moisture (41.35 ± 11.49 %), organic carbon (1.15 ± 0.35 %), organic matter (1.98 %), nitrogen (0.49 ± 0.08 %), phosphorus (3.24 ± 0.04 ppm), and highest potassium concentration (165.91 ± 8.52 ppm) (Table 3). Anthropogenic pressures like deforestation, grazing intensity, population pressure, and regeneration capacity were all recorded in class 2 (moderate). Soil erosion was in class 1 (minimum), and fire observed in class 0 (no fire).

3.4.8 Community 08 (APV: Abies-Pinus-Viburnum community)

This community included 60 quadrats and 41 species with an elevation of 2110–2404 m on a north-facing aspect with a slope of 0–30°, class 1. The subfamily Polygonoideae comprises Persicaria sinuata. Persicaria orientalis, Persicaria longiseta, and Rumex nepalensis, Persicaria capitata and Persicaria nepalensis. The top leading species in this community were Abies pindrow (43.33 IVI), Pinus wallichiana (38.80 IVI), and Viburnum grandiflorum (37.14 IVI). The codominant species were Picea smithiana, Fragaria nubicola, Oxalis corniculata, Aristida funiculata, and Aesculus indica. The Shannon and Simpson's diversity of APV were recorded at 1.23 and 0.87, respectively. The values for the species richness, evenness, and maturity were 2.42, 0.75, and 21.93 (Table 2). The variations in edaphic features, with lower to higher concentrations, were also studied e.g., silt fraction (36.19 ± 9.12 %), pH (6.39), electrical conductance (0.77 ± 0.02 mScm−1), soil moisture (37.91 ± 9.46 %), organic carbon (0.45 ± 0.01 %), organic matter (0.77 %), nitrogen concentration (0.38 ± 0.01 %), phosphorus contents (3.74 ± 0.11 ppm), and potassium (141.45 ± 14.07 ppm) (Table 3). Deforestation, grazing intensity, and soil erosion are recorded in class 2 (moderate). The population pressure and regeneration were recorded in class 3 (maximum), while the fire was in class 1 (minimum).

3.4.9 Community 09 (APV: Abies-Picea-Pinus community)

This upper temperate plant community was studied at an elevation range of 2722–3000 m, from a northwestern aspect with class 2 (30–60°) slope exposure. It comprised 90 sampling quadrats and 52 plant species, including 8 taxa of Polygonoideae: Rheum webbianum, Rumex acetosa, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Oxyria digyna, Persicaria maculosa, Polygonum aviculare, Persicaria capitata, Rumex scutatus, and Persicaria nepalensis. The APV was dominated by Abies pindrow (40.08 IVI), Picea smithiana (35.92 IVI), and Viburnum grandiflorum (34.33 IVI). The codominant species were, Pinus wallichiana, Taxus wallichiana, Rumex acetosa, Skimmia laureola, and Leptopus cordifolius The Shannon and Simpson's diversity of this association was recorded as 1.59 and 0.97. The values for the species richness, evenness, and maturity were 2.78, 0.93, and 30.57, respectively (Table 2). This association was also influenced by soil variables: silt (46.19 ± 5.20 %) with silty-sandy loam texture, pH (6.27), electrical conductance (0.88 ± 0.05 mScm−1), soil moisture (39.29 ± 10.19 %), higher organic carbon (1.09 ± 06 %), organic matter (1.87 %), lower total nitrogen (0.33 ±0 .04 %), phosphorus (3.50 ± 1.25 ppm), and potassium (150.48 ± 9.36 ppm) (Table 3). Grazing and population pressure were recorded in class 2 (moderate), deforestation and regeneration in class 3 (maximum), and fire in class 0 (no fire).

3.4.10 Community 10 (IQO: Isodon-Quercus-Olea community)

This subtropical-lower temperate community comprises 60 quadrats and 36 species at an elevation of 1225–1460 m on a northeastern aspect with a 30–90° slope. Our investigated subfamily included only a single species, Polygonum plebium. The leading species in the IQO community were Isodon rugosus (42.60 IVI), Quercus incana (40.22 IVI), and Olea europaea (18.82 IVI). The codominant species in the studied community were Indigofera heterantha, Capillipedium assimile, Debregeasia saeneb, Cynodon dactylon, and Ailanthus altissima. The diversity indices for Shannon (3.08), Simpson (0.94), richness (1.77), evenness (0.88), and a higher maturity index (35.83) were recorded (Table 2). The important soil variables were silt (57.63 ± 10.71 %), higher pH (7.64), electrical conductance (0.43 ± 0.02 mScm−1), soil moisture (29.28 ± 7.14 %), organic carbon (0.48 ± 0.02 %), organic matter (1.82 %), soil total nitrogen (0.34 ± 03 %), higher phosphorus concentration (3.95 ± 0.15 ppm), and potassium (136.76 ± 11.59 ppm) (Table 3). Deforestation, fire, grazing intensity, and soil erosion were calculated in class 2 (moderate), population pressure in class 3 (maximum), and regeneration in class 1 (minimum).

3.5 Multivariate ordination analyses

The species data matrix was analyzed using Principal component Analysis, which clearly showed the relationship between the distribution patterns of Polygonoideae-associated flora species and their microhabitat preferences.

PCA was also applied to the subfamily Polygonoideae taxa to identify the significant relationship between the species. The first PCA axis revealed 20.34 % of the variance in the data, followed by 18.94 % on the second axis. Rumex hastatus, Persicaria maculosa, and Persicaria nepalensis were identified as the most dominant species, while Rumex acetosa, Polygonum plebium, and Polygonum aviculare were the codominant species from the investigated subfamily (Fig. 8). PCA clearly identified particular species associations with the sampling sites: Rumex dentatus and Rumex crispus had a strong affinity with Rumex chalepensis and Persicaria barbata, respectively, and Oxyria digyna had a strong affinity with Rheum wabbianum (Fig. 8), where Rumex dentatus and Rumex crispus showed a strong affinity with Rumex chalepensis and Persicaria barbata, and Oxyria digyna with Rheum wabbianum (Fig. 8).Fig. 8 PCA analysis conducted on the subfamily Polygonoideae illustrates how taxa are distributed across 10 different study sites using the importance value index. This analysis provides insights into the specific preferences of species in relation to particular sites. The PCA axis reveals that 20.34 % and 18.94 % of the variance in the data.

Fig. 8

The phytosociological attributes of the sampling sites were used to perform paired-group UPGMA Cluster Analysis (CA). This study detected 2 different assemblages of sites that were further divided into 2 clusters. Cluster A was made up of four distinct subtropical-lower temperate sites (608–2035 m), distinguished by their highest average species count (>46); these sites also showed the highest average Shannon's diversity (>3.6) and Simpson's diversity (>0.95) values, the highest average (>2.52) species richness values, as well as the highest population pressure. Cluster A was further subdivided into A1 and A2 clusters. Cluster A1 comprised 3 sites in the lower temperate zone (1225–2035 m), and was dominated by Pinnaceae and Fagaceae members; A2 was a single subtropical site (608–830 m), dominated by Pinus roxburgi and Dodonaea viscosa in the city of Muzaffarabad near a huge human settlement. Cluster B was comprised of 6 different upper temperate-alpine sampling sites (2110–3850 m), distinguished by their low average species count (>43), and the average Shannon's diversity was (<2.84). Simpson's diversity (0.95) was lower than cluster A's values. However, a quite higher average (>2.53) species richness value, as well as the lowest population pressure in the alpine zone due to harsh environmental conditions. Cluster B was further subdivided into B1 and B2 clusters (Fig. 9). Cluster B1 comprised Site No. 3 at the highest elevation of the Makra Peak alpine zone (3600–3850 m) and was dominated by Allium jacquemontii, Rosa webbiana, and Berberis aitchisonii. While B2 consisted of 5 main sites in the upper temperate-subalpine zone at an elevation range of 2110–3320, it had the bulk of the floral diversity and species richness. The top leading species of this sub-cluster were Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana, and Viburnum grandiflorum (Fig. 9).Fig. 9 Cluster analysis of phytosociological attributes identified two main site assemblages: Cluster A (subtropical-lower temperate, high species diversity) and Cluster B (upper temperate-alpine, lower species diversity). Each cluster was further subdivided into sub-clusters A1, A2, B1, and B2.

Fig. 9

4 Discussion

4.1 Phytodiversity and distribution

This study is the first and baseline to explore the diversity, distribution pattern, and associated flora of Polygonoideae-dominated vegetation in the Western Himalayan region of Kashmir. The species of the investigated subfamily were mostly collected from northern parts of the study area, as reported in the previous studies [2,83,84]. Almost 50 % of the studied species of the Polygonoideae were collected from temperate zone, comparable with the [85,86]. The Shannon diversity index value ranged between 1.23 and 3.96, which indicates that communities are diversified with a higher number of species. The Simpsons diversity index value ranged from 0.87 to 0.98, depicting the relative abundance of species in the incubated area. The values of Shannon's and Simpson's diversity index are comparable with previous studies in the western Himalayan region [15,29,87,88], the eastern Himalayan region [89,90], the central Himalayan region [91], the Karakorum mountain range [92,93], China [94], and Nepal [95]. The species diversity in the western Himalayan regions may be significantly influenced by variations in the values of species richness and diversity due to environmental factors and anthropogenic pressure [12,95]. The most dominant families in the study area were found to be Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, and Lamiaceae, which is in accordance with several related studies on the Himalayas [41,61,96]. The species distribution in this study coincides with research on the flora of the nearby Himalayan forests in Bagh, Azad Jammu and Kashmir [12] and in district Muzaffarabad [41]. The findings also identified characteristic indicator subtropical plant species (Pinus roxburghii, Dodonaea viscosa, Zanthoxylum alatum, Ailanthus altissima, Persicaria barbata, and Rumex chalepensis) forming associations at lower elevations; temperate zone indicator species included Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Berberis lycium, and Viburnum grandiflorum; and subalpine-alpine species included Betula utilis, Aconitum heterophyllum, Juniperus communis, Iris hookeriana, Anaphalis nepalensis, and Persicaria nepalensis. The results of the research showed that biotic and abiotic factors influenced the distribution of plant communities in the study area, and are comparable with the previous studies [[97], [98], [99]].

4.2 Influence of elevational gradient

The direct impact of altitude on the microclimate of the habitat makes it one of the most significant factor in determining the distribution of plants in an area [100]. In the present study, R. nepalensis showed the broadest range in the lower subtropical-alpine zone (600–3850 m). P. sinuata was limited to a narrow altitudinal range between 2350 and 2700 m, and K. nepalensis was collected from more than 3600 m and so was restricted to the alpine zone. P. maculosa showed highest distribution frequency. Although species distributions are primarily determined by altitude, other co-factors like aspect, exposure, and topography can change the composition of the forest within the same altitudinal range [101]. Along an elevation gradient, a total of 10 plant communities were observed. Among them, the forest community dominated by P. wallichiana was the most frequently occurring and was represented by 5 different sampling sites. In this study, we documented 21 tree species. The number of trees decreased with an increase in elevation; similar distributions were shown by various studies along the elevational gradient [102,103]. The number of herb species recorded during the study was 202. The number of herb species increased with an increase in elevation, as supported by many previous studies of the Himalayas [16,20,25,30,[104], [105], [106]] and in the Karakorum [107,108]. The diversity of species reached its maximum at middle elevations as compared to the lower altitudes, due to anthropogenic activities and invasiveness, while at the higher elevations, species diversity was at its lowest as a result of extreme climatic conditions. Shannon diversity index and species evenness show negative correlations (Fig. 10 A & C), while Simpson diversity index and number of species exhibit positive correlations along the altitudinal gradient (Fig. 10 B & D). Some other mountainous ecosystems have additionally recorded these types of species distribution patterns [18,109,110]. Altitudinal zones in a mountainous ecosystem are determined by a wide range of environmental factors, including temperature, precipitation, the features of the mountain, and biological interactions between species. These gradients produce distinct communities along different elevation gradients [111,112]. At higher elevations, the north-facing aspect was more diverse than the south-facing aspect. The climatic conditions at elevated regions are severe, and the southern slope is thought to be less favorable for plant growth than the northern slope. Particularly, temperature limits species survival at the higher elevations, whereas on south-facing slopes, high transpiration pressure and low water availability limit plant species survival, and therefore, these elements serve as natural environmental filters. The effects of both low temperatures and aridity on the functional structure of communities have recently been reported, which supported our results [113,114]. The results of this study clearly indicate that the plant life in lower elevations has sub-tropical floristic features, which gradually change to temperate vegetation as elevation increases, and sub-alpine-alpine floristic elements at the peaks of the mountains in response to the shift in the altitudinal gradient. The digital elevation model analysis revealed that Polygonoideae species are widely distributed across an elevational range of 600–3850 m, with the majority of the species occurring in the temperate forest zone with a high distribution frequency of occurrence. Additionally, these results are consistent with [2,8,84]. The Himalayan temperate forests within the altitudinal range of 2000–3000 m have higher rainfall and more fertile soils, which leads to a higher biodiversity in temperate forests in comparison to the lower subtropical zones that have dry and hot climates [115].Fig. 10 Correlation between diversity indices specially Shannon diversity index, Simpson diversity index, species evenness and number of species along altitudinal gradient. Shannon diversity index and species evenness show negative correlations, while Simpson diversity index and number of species exhibit positive correlations along the altitudinal gradient.

Fig. 10

4.3 Influence of edaphic factors

Previous research has revealed that the presence of nutrients in the soil is essential for the development and growth of plants [116,117] and influences the distribution of flora [118]. According to Pearson's correlation analysis (Fig. 11), soil pH is positively correlated with soil total phosphorus, clay, and silt but negatively correlated with soil moisture, electrical conductance, SOC, SOM, total nitrogen, and potassium. We can summarize Pearson's correlation analysis by suggesting that soil pH and total phosphorus show a negative correlation with other investigated soil physicochemical factors, while soil electrical conductivity, moisture, SOC, SOM, and soil total N and K show a positive correlation with each other and elevation as well (Fig. 11). The pairs of SOC and SOM, coarse sand and fine sand, and silt and clay were highly interconnected, while gravel was strongly negatively correlative with the silt and clay (Fig. 11). In this study, soil total nitrogen and organic carbon were strongly positively correlated with the elevation, which is inconsistent with Luo et al. [119]. However, soil total phosphorus delineates itself from this study by showing a negative relationship with elevation. The strong negative correlations between pH and SOM suggest that plant species have an impact on the pH of the soil. Highest pH was observed at lower elevations and lowest at higher elevations, and while SOM results were totally negatively correlated with the pH, these were supported by the previous study of Garten and Hanson [120]. The SOM, soil organic C and N, soil moisture contents, and K concentrations were found to be increases with elevation. Similar trends have been observed from the Southern Appalachian Mountains [120] and Western Himalayan region [44]. The texture of the soil is an important factor that influences a number of soil characteristics, including the capacity to absorb, water holding capacity, the degree of tillage required, the level of aeration necessary for root growth, and ultimately, the fertility of the soil. The textural properties of soils usually correlate with the composition and growth rate of forest vegetation [121]. This study shows that higher levels of carbon and nitrogen at the tree line suggest high availability of nitrogen in forest floor material, which has also been observed in other regions of the world [122]. The vegetation composition of a specific site is determined by Abbas et al. [123] and is supported by a higher level of nitrogen in tree line soil.Fig. 11 Pearson's correlation analysis indicates that there is a positive correlation between soil pH and soil total phosphorus, clay, and silt. On the other hand, there is a negative correlation between soil pH and soil moisture, electrical conductivity, SOC, SOM, total nitrogen, and potassium. The analysis also reveals strong interconnections among SOC and SOM, coarse and fine sand, as well as silt and clay.

Fig. 11

4.4 Influence of anthropogenic activities and threats

The main anthropogenic activities that have a strong influence on the local vegetation in the study area are deforestation, plant collection, soil erosion, grazing pressure, fire, recreational activities, expansion of the agricultural land, and population pressure, which influence the plant communities. Communities 1, 4, and 10 were mainly affected by population pressure, grazing, and deforestation, while communities 3, 5, 7, 8, and 9 were mostly affected by plant collection and deforestation for construction, and communities 2 and 6 were used for recreational purposes on a large scale. The collection of plants for medicinal purposes was carried out in plant communities, with many species that were declared endangered by the IUCN, e.g., Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum wabbianum, Taxus wallichiana, Betula utilis, and Aconitum hetrophyllum [75]. We observed that plants were being used based on their specific use values, such as their value as food or medicine, rather than their abundance. Because of this, despite their low abundance in the vegetation, a number of rare and endangered species were being exploited, which most likely resulted in a decline in biodiversity. The most frequently used and preferred fuel wood tree species, such as Pinus roxburghii, Quercus incana, Pinus wallichiana, and Abies pindrow, are facing immense deforestation pressure in the study area (Fig. 6), showing consistency with the past findings of Shaheen et al. [12]. The lush green Himalayan forests, which were once thickly forested, have been replaced by denuded steep ridges with densely built houses, roadways, and terrace fields [124]. On the one hand, because of the high demand for fuel wood and timber, local forest reserves are being heavily exploited. On the other hand, due to a limited availability of grazing areas for livestock, illegal and overgrazing of protected areas is threatening the growth and development of the seedlings. The results of this study show that the forest structure and regeneration pattern are declining, demanding immediate action of the policymakers and forest management authorities. It is possible to develop efficient plant conservation policies that put a priority on the preservation of communities that host a large number of endangered and endemic species while also facing threats from humans by utilizing both phytosociological data and information on human use. This method may be a productive tool for developing strategies for conservation.

4.5 Multivariate cluster analysis

The use of multivariate cluster analysis indicated the plant association clusters and correlated them with particular study sites based on the importance value of each species and the elevation gradient of the sites [125]. PCA is used for summarization and data reduction, indirect gradient analysis, and hypothesis generation. Ecological interpretations frequently depend upon personal opinions; it is preferable to use PCA to generate hypotheses rather than as conclusive evidence for ecological principles [126]. PCA evaluates the connection between observations and variables in addition to recognizing the data structure as well [127]. The PCA analysis demonstrated how elevation is a major contributor to species diversity, community structure, and distribution patterns of species in the Himalayan regions. This study indicated that the distribution of species and altitude are strongly correlated, as also reported in the previous studies [61,100]. Similar studies recently reported that the PCA analysis showed a strong correlation between altitude and moisture with vegetation patterns and floral diversity in the Western Himalayan region [55]. According to our PCA results, some different sampling sites showed almost a similar vegetation structure. It was previously reported that similar species at different sites usually cluster at the center, which means that they are not related to factors [61,112]. The grouping of plant species in a specific area may be influenced by geographical factors such as elevation, edaphic factors, slope, and slope angle. The study based on PCA results suggested that the species association along the elevation gradient is determined by the elevation and degree of slope. The study of the conservation status of the Polygonoideae-dominant flora indicated that 39 plant species had very low (<0.2) IVI values, with 13 of them having extremely low (<0.1) IVI values. These rare taxa included species like Dryopteris sparsa, Saxifraga stenophylla, Bupleurum falcatum, Viola pilosa, Conyza bonariensis, Campanula cashmeriana, and Solanum nigrum, some are widely used in ethnomedicine [58].

There are presently no studies conducted on the diversity and distribution patterns with relation to edaphic factors of the subfamily Polygonoideae in the Himalayas. The diversity and distribution patterns of the subfamily Polygonoideae along the elevational gradient provide a distinctive perspective on the complex interactions between plant communities and edaphic variables. The detailed investigation of the subfamily Polygonoideae in this study highlights the ecological preferences and distribution patterns of these species throughout a wide range of elevations. Edaphic factors like soil nutrients and soil composition reveal the complex interaction between these plants and their surroundings. The study of various ecological zones provides comprehensive insights into how different elevations affect Polygonoideae species distribution. The findings of this study will be helpful for the effective conservation and management of the subfamily Polygonoideae diversity in the Himalayan forests.

While this study is comprehensive, there are several limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the random sampling approach used in the research, although useful for broad coverage, may not fully explore variability of species distribution and ecological interactions within the Muzaffarabad division. Secondly, the temporal scope of the study is limited to 2021–2022, which means that seasonal or annual variations in species composition and ecological dynamics may not be accounted for. Thirdly, the identification and classification of species, especially the less common or morphologically similar ones, were subject to the constraints of field taxonomy and available reference materials. Moreover, the focus on a specific region restricts the generalizability of the findings to other areas within the Western Himalayan region. Additionally, the study did not include long-term monitoring, which could provide valuable insights into the effects of climate change and anthropogenic pressures over time. These limitations underscore the importance of ongoing research and the need for more refined methodologies to enhance our understanding of Polygonoideae diversity and conservation requirements.

5 Conclusions

The current study is the first attempt to analyze how subfamily Polygonoideae is distributed across Muzaffarabad, division AJK, in various ecological zones and determine edaphic factors influencing the vegetation patterns. A total of 279 plant species, including 28 taxa from Polygonoideae, are reported in the diverse subtropical-alpine forest zone. The distribution patterns of plant species within the study area are highly influenced by various factors, including the topographic factors, and soil mechanical and physicochemical parameters. Herbs were predominant in the study area. The higher concentrations of soil nutrients were found at the higher elevations as compared to the lower and middle elevational zones. The floral diversity at 2000–3000 m has a significantly diverse species composition as compared to subtropical and alpine flora. More than 45 % of all the Polygonoideae species were collected from the temperate zone and are therefore native to the temperate hemisphere. The studied plant communities showed moderate levels of species richness and diversity. Anthropogenic disturbances such as deforestation, fire, uncontrolled seasonal grazing, and population pressure have been recorded as potential threats to the Himalayan region's community structure and natural diversity. The current study identified 39 species as vulnerable species with a low importance value (<0.2) in the study area based on comparative assessments of their conservation status. The results of this study can assist in developing conservation measures that are specifically suited to the threatened flora of the Kashmir region. Conservation efforts should priorities safeguarding the threatened species through the involvement of local communities, forest departments, conservation organizations, sustainable harvesting, and land use management.

Funding

Project Number: (RSP2024R193 ), 10.13039/501100002383 King Saud University , Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Ethics declaration

Review and/or approval by an ethics committee was not needed for this study because this is a field-based study and does not contain any collection from restricted or reserved areas.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript and its supplementary data file.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Syed Waseem Gillani: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation. Mushtaq Ahmad: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration. M. Ajmal Ali: Methodology, Funding acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualization. Muhammad Zafar: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Methodology. Jawaher Alkahtani: Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Trobjon Makhkamov: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Akramjon Yuldashev: Visualization, Validation, Software. Oybek Mamarakhimov: Resources, Methodology, Formal analysis. Laziza Botirova: Resources, Investigation, Conceptualization. Omer Kilic: Writing – review & editing, Validation. Hamayun Shaheen: Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Khislat Khaydarov: Validation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Muhammad Idrees: Data curation, Conceptualization. Shazia Sultana: Methodology, Conceptualization. Muhammad Manzoor: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Salman Majeed: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Software, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article.Multimedia component 1

Multimedia component 1

Acknowledgment

The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers supporting project number (RSP2024R193 ), 10.13039/501100002383 King Saud University , Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Appendix A Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36571.
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