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J Genet Eng Biotechnol
J Genet Eng Biotechnol
Journal of Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology
1687-157X
2090-5920
Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Egypt

S1687-157X(24)00110-0
10.1016/j.jgeb.2024.100407
100407
Review Article
Marine microalgae and their industrial biotechnological applications: A review
Gamal Reham Reham_niof@yahoo.com
⁎
Shreadah Mohamed Attia
National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, Egypt
⁎ Corresponding author. Reham_niof@yahoo.com
24 8 2024
12 2024
24 8 2024
22 4 1004078 3 2024
3 7 2024
31 7 2024
© 2024 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Graphical abstract

Background

For use in specialized programs in the food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, cosmetic, and animal feed sectors, micro-algal biomass has been generated industrially. They can be grown in closed buildings, such as photobioreactors, or open structures. The utilization of biomass from microalgae for energy production is another crucial topic. Because of the world’s diminishing petroleum sources and the greenhouse gas emissions from gasoline lines, it is now obvious that fuels generated from petroleum are not sustainable.

Results

Microalgae can produce a variety of unique, sustainable biofuels. These include biodiesel made from trans-esterification of microalgal lipids, bioethanol from fermentation of carbohydrates, methane created by anaerobic digestion of algal biomass, and biohydrogen produced by photobiological processes. The idea of using microalgae as a fuel source is not entirely novel.

Conclusion

This analysis emphasizes the significance of recent and noteworthy advancements in the industrial usage of microalgae, with an emphasis on their biotechnological applications.

Keywords

Aquaculture
Biotechnology
Microalgae
Industrial
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pmc1 Introduction

The first members of the aquatic ecosystem and the progenitors of modern land plants are microalgae. Microalgae are unicellular microbes that can produce chemical force from solar energy and engage in photosynthesis. One of the main sources of oxygen produced in the atmosphere is microalgae. Unlike the superior flora, these organisms have a bloom and contribute additional biomass that is rich in bioactive chemicals. Microalgae may even domesticate in waste or saline water. They can even adapt to harsh environmental circumstances and cease to compete with farmers. Algal biomass has been utilized as a major food source and medication since the early 1500 BCE. The first microalgae were employed as a necessary food ingredient and pharmaceutical.1

Numerous expensive bioactive substances, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, essential fatty acids, pigments, vitamins, antioxidants, and so forth, can be produced by microalgae.2 The food, cosmetics, feed, biofuels, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries have all made extensive use of microalgae due to these reasons (Fig. 1).3 Moreover, it has been applied to the production of biofuel, wastewater treatment, carbon dioxide mitigation, and bioremediation.4Fig. 1 Industrial applications of micro-algae.

Nevertheless, producing strong derivatives from microalgae may not always be environmentally beneficial if it does not result in the production of an additional metabolite at a higher cost. The main risks associated with commercializing micro-algal products are their small market size, high manufacturing costs, low biomass, accumulation of products in large-scale cultivation, and overly restrictive regulations.5 Nonetheless, recent studies in finance have demonstrated that the development of microalgal industries is a rapidly expanding industry in the market. By 2026, it is projected that the value of the global micro-algal product market will surpass seventy-five million US dollars. Bioactive micro-algae compounds have garnered increased attention and research efforts in the past few years.

Extracted and refined from micro-algae, high-quality, expensive metabolites with nutritional and medicinal properties include proteins, polysaccharides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and more.6 Metabolites generated from microalgae have been demonstrated to have potential use in the management and avoidance of several illnesses, including diabetes, heart disease, autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, anemia, obesity, dementia, and a variety of neurodegenerative diseases.7

To comprehend the function of synthetic goods, costly biosynthetic pathways from herbal components are artificially built in microalgae due to the rapid advancement of synthetic biology.8 This manufacturing technique is more economical and quicker. For instance, students specifically understand that metabolic engineering increases the production of plant flora in the sentences about enhancing the productivity of herbal biosynthetic nutrition E.9

The literature makes it evident that in the same historical circumstances, microalgae have been regarded as dietary supplements. Humans from Mexico first reported using spirulina as a food ingredient in 1300 CE It is also clear that African humans included spirulina in their regular diet. People ate Nostock as a supplemental meal from China, Mongolia, and South America. Blue algae were used by humans to create the dry cake known as “tequila” in Spain. As a historical illustration, spigyra has been a culinary element in places like Vietnam, Burma, and India.10

Japanese people have been using cyanobacteria for a long time to cook their “Suizenjinori” home meal. Therefore, it is clear that the application of cutting-edge biotechnology features in the utilization of microalgae has existed for some time. A symposium on the collective lifestyle of algae, held in 1952 by Stanford University and Inside the United States, opened up a whole new avenue for the production and marketing of microalgae. A company named Nihon Chlorella was established in Japan in the 1960 s to cultivate chlorella in large quantities for packaged meals. Then, near Lake Texcoco, Mexico, a business by the name of Sosa Texcoco S.A. began cultivating Arthrospira in the 1970 s. More than 1,000 kg of microalgae are produced monthly by 46 large-scale microalgae cultivation plants in Asia, which were established in the 1980 s.

Later, Dunaliella salina was widely cultivated to produce beta-carotene and eventually rose to prominence as a major producer of microalgae metabolites. Large-scale industries in India have begun to cultivate microalgae.1 The algae biotechnology sector has grown rapidly in the last few years. With a turnover of almost $1.25 x 109 in a year, the micro-algae manufacturing market has grown to about 5,000 dry lots/12 months.1 However, low biomass manufacturing and issues with product recovery—which will raise the cultivation's worth and the final product prize—are the main disadvantages of large-scale microalgal growing structures. Nonetheless, scientists concentrate on refining contemporary approaches to enhance the aesthetics of microalgae biomass industrialization and diminish the financial benefits of microalgae cultivation.6

Expensive metabolites Micro-algae are also utilized as biofertilizers and to enhance nutrients in a variety of industries, including medicines, cosmetics, aquaculture, and poultry feed.11 Therefore, the current paper outlines the current state of algal biotechnology, the expanding commercial applications for microalgae, the main challenges, and the future applications for microalgal products in the global market.

2 Current industrial applications of microalgal bioproducts

2.1 Fodder for animals

Premium feed is the most important external factor influencing an animal's fitness, along with the survival rate, flowering rate, development, productivity, and fertility of the animal. Unnecessarily, adding microalgae to an aquaculture operation for feeding is crucial. Animal bodies can surely be impacted by minute amounts of microalgal biomass from the genera Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and Spirulina. Their immune system and reproduction are boosted by the microalgae's provision of natural vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids.12

The internal use of microalgal biomass as a feed ingredient in the rooster and puppy industries was pioneered by this site. Microalgae are widely cultivated as a key food source to satisfy the feeding needs of finfish and shellfish larvae and juveniles, hence expediting aquaculture production. To achieve the same amazing results as those in animal feed, micro-algae producers have been added to fish feed in recent years, mostly for breeding and producing fish. Additionally, microalgae provide food for the synthesis of zooplankton (rotifers, copepods), which is utilized as feed for raising fish larvae and juveniles when it is in the heart form.13

Globally, aquaculture uses more than forty kinds of microalgae, depending on the particular requirements of local seafood processing. Together with proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), carotenoids, and essential vitamins, algae also remove animal metabolites from aesthetic water.14 In addition to pets and farm animals, algae can also be added to feed to benefit other creatures. The vital role that microalgae play in the soil environment has been consistently disregarded.

In most cases, there are two reasons why using biofertilizers is necessary: first, a high use of chemical fertilizers results in a higher crop yield; second, a high use of chemical fertilizers damages the texture of the soil and causes more environmental issues.15 The trouble caused by the fractured soil texture is lessened by the application of biofertilizers.

The benefits of employing biofertilizers today originate from bioactive substances obtained from algae that influence the mutation and productivity of improved plants, rather than the manufacture of polymers for particle adhesion, hydrophobicity in the soil, or nitrogen fixation. The cyanobacteria group of microalgae has garnered significant interest due to its potential as a rich source of biologically active components that can serve as biofertilizers.16

Furthermore, complex natural carbon compounds secreted by cyanobacteria bond to soil detritus and encourage soil aggregation, improving the permeability, form, and ability of the soil to retain water. The process of pyrolyzing micro-algae biomass to produce biofuel can yield a stable charcoal residue that can be used in additional agricultural applications as a biofertilizer.17

2.2 Colors and meal coloring merchandise

Owing to their intricate metabolic makeup, microalgae are continuously being investigated for potential industrial biomaterials. Microalgae can produce a variety of distinctive hues, such as green, pink, yellow, or orange. Yellow and chlorophyll should be the primary green pigments. The carotenoids ought to contain pigments that are either pink or orange. It is possible to extract these pigments from the microalgae and use them in the culinary, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries. It should be noted, though, that the weak potency of herbal dyes contributes to some of the negative issues associated with their use.18

Plant pigments (carotenoids) shield plants from the sun's rays and mitigate the effects of moderate electrolyte consumption (plant proteins). The most well-known microalgae company on the market is Carotenoids. They serve as Food coloring (e.g., to color orange juice) • β-carotene from Dunaliella is used to improve the color of salmon meat and egg yolks and to increase the fertility and fitness of cattle-fed grains.19

In aquaculture, astaxanthin from Haematococcus is used to brighten the colors of shells and improve the muscle shades of fish, such as salmon muscles.12 For medicinal uses, lutein, zeaxanthin, and canthaxanthin are utilized in chicken pores and skin coloring. Phycocyanin is utilized as a dye in the production of meals (ice cream, sweets, non-alcoholic beverages, and healthy food), cosmetic products, and pharmaceutical products. Phycobiliproteins and phycoerythrin from algae are employed in meals and cosmetics. Because of its excellent fluorescence, photostability, and great molecular absorbency, it is also frequently employed in scientific research and immunology labs. It was fitted as a bright and efficient fluorescence detector because of these qualities. Phycobiliproteins, or proteins derived from microalgae, are fluorescent indicators used in genetic screening in molecular analysis.

2.3 Cosmeceuticals

Cosmetics are substances designed to be used on the body for purposes other than cleaning soap that does not interfere with human health, such as cleansing, healing, anti-aging, anti-cellulite, anti-sunscreen and antibacterial effects, moisturizing, beautifying, or perfuming.20 Many formulations have been created to improve, revive, and smooth skin, hair, pores, and other areas.21

Resurfacing cosmetics made of bioavailable ingredients with potential therapeutic or drug-like effects are already made with micro-algae extracts.22 Cosmetic package materials are commonly used to identify these extracts, especially in face, hand, and frame lotions21 (Fig. 2). Particularly utilized in cosmetics include Arthrospira, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, Chlorella micro-algae, and cyanobacteria.23Fig. 2 Some algae in commercial products.

Lotions and moisturizers for the face contain extracts from these microalgae. Shampoos, hair masks, and sunscreen lotions also include it. Skin collagen and pore development are believed to be stimulated by chlorella vulgaris extract. Additionally, it facilitates the regeneration of fibers, clears the skin's pores, and reduces wrinkles on the skin's surface (Codif Company, France). A protein-enriched extract from Arthrospira slows down the aging of pores and skin (Exsymol, Monaco). It has been suggested that the saltwater micro-algae extracts from Nonnochloropsis oculata want skin elasticity and pores. The carotenoids found in microalgae are employed in photoprotection to prevent UV light-induced photooxidation of skin and pores.

In addition to follicles and UV light-induced skin photooxidation, the ketocarotenoid astaxanthin is utilized to prevent many human disease processes. An ingredient in cosmetics is purified phycobiliproteins, a synthetic version of Arthrospira.24 The skin, which has three primary layers (the dermis, the epidermis, and the hypodermis), is the most vital organ that shields the human body from harmful external elements.25

Stabilizing matrix protein synthesis and breakdown in conjunction with collagen, elastin, and glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronic acid) helps preserve mature, luminous skin and pores. This approach is focused on the regeneration process of corresponding proteins with chronic synthesis. But time and photoaging also have an impact on this stability because they couple the upregulation of proteinases with protein degradation, which balances out the down-regulated portion of synthesis that involves protein breakdown. The movement's driving mechanism for enhancing this inequality is the stimulation of protein synthesis or modification of their breakdown by proteinases.26

Using a wide range of specific pores and skin technique items that contain chemicals such as ethanolamines, sodium lauryl sulfates, polypeptides, or oligopeptides, the production of matrix proteins or proteinases inhibition is attempted. Nonetheless, there is a never-ending hunt for bioactive herbal ingredients that can be incorporated into cosmetic formulations due to the possibility of escalating hypersensitive reactions and other unfavorable attitudes. Because of this, bioactive chemicals derived from micro-algae have become well-known for their fantastic moisturizing, thickening, pigmenting, anti-aging, whitening of the pores and skin, safety while using sunscreen, and a multitude of other properties.27

Cosmetics are defined as goods that, with the aid of excipients and biomaterials that are especially suited for a variety of pores and skin types, are meant to improve the pores, skin look, form, and texture of the skin.28 The beauty industry uses a lot of extracts from micro-algae species, particularly in skincare and hair care products (such as moisturizers, anti-aging creams, scrubs, clean care, and sunscreens).29 Arthrospira sp. and C. vulgaris, D. salina, S. platensis, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus, Ascophyllum nodosum, Alaria esculenta, and N. oculate are among the rare micro-algae species.30 Cu-Chl (CI 758110) is a program of different micro-algae in the cosmetic industry that is accountable through its metabolites or bioactive substances, which are listed in the following item.

2.4 Pharmaceuticals

A large body of work has discussed the potential of microalgal for prescription medication applications.31 The bioactive compounds found in micro-algae, such as phycocyanin, lutein, cyanovirin, diet E, B12, B-carotene, oleic acid, linolenic acid, palmitoleic acid, and so on, have been shown to exhibit a broad range of actions, including anticoagulant, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, hypotensive, and potential anti-disease prevention.32 Numerous microalgae, especially cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, also produce potent contamination that has been the subject of few research studies and is a crucial component of developing new drugs.33

Spirulina can strengthen the immune system and reduce harmful cholesterol. Spirulina's sulfur polysaccharides are frequently employed as antiviral agents.34 Chlorella contains three glucans, or β-1, which is an essential material. This substance lowers blood lipid levels and triggers an immunological response. It is a non-stable free radical scavenger. In addition, it works well for wound healing, removing poisonous substances from the body, and treating tumors and stomach ulcers. When it comes to elevated blood cholesterol, it is protective. Chlorella extracts have been shown to lower blood sugar, raise hemoglobin levels, and have hepatoprotective properties.35 Pure phycobiliproteins may be useful for treating leukemias and other carcinomas in several ways, including as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and photodynamic therapies.36 Macular degeneration and cataracts are two degenerative illnesses that carotenoids are excellent at treating.37 Astaxanthin, a ketocarotenoid, is used to prevent a variety of human pathological conditions, such as UV-mediated photooxidation of the pores and skin, inflammation, prostate, and mammary carcinogenesis, ulcers (due to Helicobacter pylori infection), and illnesses linked with aging. Because of its exceptional antioxidant qualities, β-carotene has been proposed as a preventive and anticancer agent for chronic conditions, potency extenders, ulcer inhibitors, coronary heart attacks, and coronary artery disease. It has strong blood cholesterol-controlling properties as well.19

The red microalga Porphyridium cruentum, from which vitamin E may be derived, has a protective impact on the body against a number of illnesses, such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and neurological diseases, which encompass more than only sclerosis. Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids are best for physical fitness and at-home rehabilitation. Studies have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids “cleanse” blood arteries and reduce blood levels of fat and cholesterol. Physicians are considering prescribing medications derived from fish oil to treat immunodeficiency disease, rheumatoid arthritis, coronary heart disease, inflammation, and coronary heart disorders. The clinical use of ω-three fatty acids for these purposes is growing.38

3 Nutraceuticals/Food products

The concept of purposeful meals was initially introduced in Japan in the early 1980 s and is defined as “meals which have a confirmed gain for one or extra capabilities of the human organism except for their nutritious consequences, improving the country of fitness or well-being or lowering the threat of disorder.” The addition of one or more additions (functional elements) that are either not given as presents in typical meals or are given in small amounts can result in targeted meals. Specifically, micronutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids, linoleic acids, phytosterols, prebiotics, probiotics, carotenoids, polyphenols, vitamins, and others can have a beneficial effect on the body.39

People have been eating microalgae for a very long time. The price of micro-algae soft protein is lower than that of animal revalues like milk and meat, but more than that of some vegetable revalues like wheat, rice, and legumes.40 Microalgal biomass is utilized in several multivitamin human fitness items that are currently being marketed in unique forms, such as tablets, soft gels, and liquids, because of their distinct chemical compounds. To increase nutritional value and physical fitness, it can also be added to portions of pasta, snack foods, noodles, cookies, ice cream, sweet bean bars, gum, drinks, and other items as an addition to meals.32

In the nutrition and fitness market, dehydrated biomass or mobile extracts derived from Chlorella, Dunaliella, and Spirulina have taken center stage and are currently valued at billions of dollars.40

4 Microalgae as prebiotics

The primary product of photosynthesis and carbon fixation metabolism is carbohydrates. However the chemical compositions and metabolic routes of carbohydrates, especially cellulose and starch, can also differ greatly throughout microalgal species.41 Specifically, the species of microalgae, the stage of flowering, and the intensity of flowering all influence the thickness and composition of moveable walls.42

It is possible to partially hydrolyze the micro-algae biomass's moveable wall polysaccharides. This technology is frequently utilized in the food and feed industry to provide non-digestible oligosaccharides, which are essential for both human and animal health and fitness. The usual intestinal microbiota of humans43 or animals44 can ferment just a few number of micro-algae, if not none at all. According to some research, prebiotics have optimal properties that include treating irritable bowel syndrome, acting as an antinociceptive peripheral analgesic drug, promoting angiogenesis, and protecting,45 except its presence as an apoptotic, hypotensive, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anticoagulant/anticoagulant, antiproliferative/tumor suppressive, antilipidemic, and hypoglycemic agent.46 Although there are benefits to using animals in research, there are relatively few trustworthy statistics about how it affects people. Large-scale research on the prebiotics' mechanism of movement toward therapeutic vitamins and human fitness is necessary for this acknowledgment.47 Given the complexity of the human gut microbiome and the fact that its composition can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including host genes and nationality, this endeavor is undoubtedly difficult.48

The coexistence of beneficial and harmful bacteria in the gastrointestinal system has long been known. The current studies have focused primarily on altering homeostasis, particularly when prebiotics are present. This is done to counteract potentially harmful microorganisms and promote the growth of different beneficial organisms, which in turn increases resistance to infections, lowers the risk of colon cancer, and improves obesity. Prebiotics have also been demonstrated to improve plasma lipids, affect glucose levels, and boost the absorption of calcium and magnesium.49

The restaurant industry has typically looked for simpler, more cost-effective, sustainable, and efficient ways to achieve large-scale benefits. The structural complexity of prebiotic oligosaccharides, however, may limit their ability to be manufactured, therefore the associated costs may also reduce the manufacturing company's ability to compete. Conversely, prebiotic oligosaccharides can be generated by hydrolyzing polysaccharides or synthesizing disaccharides enzymatically, or they can be found by reevaluating traditional agrifood groups. Since the polysaccharides inside are changed into oligosaccharides on their journey to the end, seaweed, and marine micro-algae are additional related (although indirect) sources of oligosaccharides.

It carries certain biochemical and fermentative functions while remaining unaffected by digestive enzymes in the upper portion of the digestive system.50 Other methods for converting polysaccharides to oligosaccharides include phosphoric acid hydrolysis, microwaves, pyrolysis acidification with diluted hydrochloric acid, and unstable radicals from hydrolysis by Cu2+, Fe2+, or H2O2.51 Physical methods (such as microwaves and ultrasonography) typically have negligible to no adverse effects. Furthermore, it is no longer poisonous and extremely strong in terms of potency and time commitment.52

Compounds include a reevaluation of micro-algae that contain prebiotic compounds such as arabinoxylans, galactans, β-glucans, agarose-derived oligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, neoagaro-oligosaccharides, alginate-derived oligosaccharides, and inulin.53 Prior studies have demonstrated that Arthrospira platensis, as a component of the intestinal flora, positively affects the survivability of microorganisms such as Lactobacillus casei, Streptococcus thermophilus, Porphyridium sp. Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Bifidobacteria.54

In vitro study also involved the suppression of dangerous microbes such as Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus pumulis. When added to yogurt, Spirulina sp. caused mutations in Bifidobacteria and L. acidophilus, whereas Isochrysis galbana, which is identified by having high quantities of both soluble and insoluble fibers, appears to have potential as a prebiotic. This was deduced, while discussing the micro-algae treatment before, from the mutation within the diverse range of lactic acid microorganisms within the rat feces.55

Particular organic functions carried out by micro-algae species such as Chlorella ellipsoidea and Chlorella pyrenoidosa have been linked to their sugar complexes. N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine, galactose, rhamnose, glucose, and a good number of mannoses and arabinose residues are all gifts. For Listeria monocytogenes and Candida albicans, the aforementioned complexes show immunostimulating or even antiproliferative properties. An additional carbohydrate produced by Chlorella sp. β-1, or three glucans, is an immune-stimulating hobbyist, especially when it comes to scavenging free radicals. Moreover, it lowers blood fat levels. The effectiveness of polysaccharides derived from Nostoc flagella and against the herpes simplex virus was also demonstrated.56

However, dairy products have been the only foods in which micro-algae has been used as a prebiotic through meal project approaches thus far. This is anticipated given that, according to the definition given above, these cargoes serve as the main carriers of probiotic (bacterial) strains. As shown earlier, vegan consumers are searching for non-dairy matrices. Additionally, technological advancements have made it possible to customize fermented veggies and peak meal supplements. Plant tissue-derived oligosaccharides are said to retain prebiotic activity,57 and some of them are currently synthesized (Prebiotin®, for example).

Thus, there might be a chance to enhance prebiotics derived from microalgae and eventually produce them into lactic acid-fermented products apart from yogurt or cheese. Immunostimulants have been used in aquaculture to help fish under stress have stronger immune systems. These substances generally cause leukocytes like neutrophils and monocyte macrophages to proliferate, as well as to phagocytose and secrete immune mediators (such cytokines). As indicated in Table (4), one such immunostimulator utilized in aquaculture is paramelon (β-1 linear, tri-glucose polymer). These prebiotics are added to the diet as food supplements; however, they are no longer mixed with the probiotics that are still present. Mussels are one of the representative examples.58

β-glucan derived from Euglena sp. is also used for feeding poultry, cattle, horses, dogs, cats, reptiles, and birds, in addition to the wonderful species kept in zoos and aquariums.59 Prebiotics derived from yeast, notably Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which generates beta-glucans, are by far the most effective currently available. These are marketed under the trade names WellMuneTM from Biothera Corporation (Egan, MN, USA), Macrogard TM from Immunocorp (Werkendam, Netherlands), and BetaGlucans from BioTec Pharmacon (Tromsø, Norway). Algal Scientific Corporation (Plymouth, MI, USA) markets Paramelon under the brand name AlgamuneTM. It was produced at extremely high purities, far away from scleroglucan, laminarin from brown seaweeds, curdlan from Gram-negative microorganisms, and β-glucans from yeasts from fungi.60 The exception to this is paramelon. Even if there was a chance to identify prebiotic chemicals among polysaccharides originating from marine sources, a significant portion of the exploration of strong affinity was needed to determine the precise structure and alternative distribution. Therefore, more investigation into these substances could yield fresh perspectives on the particular mechanisms needed to enhance the prebiotic pastime.

5 Actual commercialization of research findings

The prospect of producing micro-algae-based products on a commercial scale seems to be purposefully present, considering the data that has previously been collected through studies and research. Additionally, this might contribute to the profitability of the bioactive molecule market share, which has up until now been controlled by synthesized molecules or molecules isolated from populations of plants and animals. Early in the 1960 s, meal- and prevention-oriented initiatives were complemented by unconjugated mobile protein (SCP), or high-protein biomass, for feed, which became the main product concentrated on an enterprise methods route.

The cultivation of Dunaliella sp. and Haematococcus sp., with an emphasis on β-carotene and Astaxanthin, for use as ingredients in meals or feeds, led to a boom in the production of micro-algae pigments in the 1980 s. The early 1990 s saw the start of the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), mainly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), for use in aquaculture feed and food commodity enrichment. While many products made from microalgae have a remarkable history, large-scale commercial manufacture is still relatively new.

Globally dispersed commercial hubs for microalgae production coexist with marketing channels controlled by North America and Asia, and inadequate substitute inputs distributed through European, North African, and Oceanic channels. Since the production of micro-algae-based products is limited while they are present intracellularly, the main factors that determine the technical and financial viability are the cost and yield of biomass processing. Because of the projected over-manufacturing volumes, it is not necessarily anticipated that microalgae will be able to produce proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids in bulk at scale.

Thus, with greatly inflated fixed capital prices and onerous labor charges, the system of economic scale influences capital and operating prices. Furthermore, as expensive products made from microalgae are frequently consumed by humans or animals, their production processes need to follow several regulations and requirements. The situation is made worse by labeling problems, which differ greatly between US states and may result in public costs being paid in order to create a marketable product.61 Nonetheless, current studies have improved the sustainability of microalgae production while reducing online processing costs by utilizing biorefining and wastewater treatment technology.

6 Bio-algae: An interactive facade for commercial buildings

It was found that a revolutionary ecological strategy is contributed by using algae as details for pores and skin in densely inhabited cities as a biomimicry architectural method.62 The findings in this area suggest that utilizing algal formation as a bio-planning strategy when building facades enhances the built environment's functionality, which is taken into account when calculating an individual's productivity. Algae facades also contribute to a reduction in the amount of electricity consumed for environmental control during construction as well as for building activities.

It is capable of meeting all or most of the facility's electrical needs. As a result, the hypotheses from the research were verified. In addition to helping to manufacture smooth power to address the non-renewable electricity issue, the use of algae interface to generate renewable electricity plays a crucial role in environmental regeneration. Algal interfaces that synthesize oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide improve the building's external and internal surroundings while lowering pollution levels in the environment.

The article examines the evaluation and interviews with experts, architects, and members of the public who expressed a strong desire to implement this novel concept in layout, with 50–60 % of evaluations supporting the reduction of pollutants and consideration of diseases brought on by environmental pollutants in densely populated areas, heavily polluted cities, and U.S. capital cities. Certain individuals have expressed a preference for state-of-the-art and innovative technology within their residences, which can be integrated into the city's architectural design to preserve it for future generations.

Some people are afraid of the high price, especially owners and traders. These problems can be lessened, though, if long-term advantages are prioritized. Twenty to twenty-five percent of respondents said they had problems with the finance and conservation needed for this generation. Many public buildings, including hospitals, office buildings, hotels, and so forth, can utilize algae facades, particularly those that use a lot of electricity to operate. Creating interactive façades departs from the conventional forms of constructive façades and offers a remarkable, distinctive aesthetic. Although biomimicry in general and the interactive creation of algae biomimicry, in particular, is still relatively new, it is conceivable to win over the world, technologies, and inclinations toward zero-electricity homes, ecological regeneration, and increased life satisfaction using algae interfaces increasingly new field. With further studies, designers will benefit from additional expertise in the field and the possibility of using what they discover from nature to shop the planet.

Algae have a stronger capacity for photosynthesis than many other plants, which allows them to produce more oxygen and take up more carbon dioxide.63 The performance-based regulation (PBR) device is not frequently used because of its limitations in terms of utility and use. The Bio Intelligent Quotient (BIQ) rental building64 in Hamburg, Germany (Fig. 3) is the most often used building utilizing a PBR interface device, called the Solar Leaf. It converts solar electricity with an efficiency of 10 %. When assessing a standard photovoltaic device, which converts solar energy at a rate of 15–20 %, the equipment is inadequate. This device's drawbacks also include the criminal issue, stringent requirements for processing microalgae microsurfaces, and onerous requirements for glass interfaces of microalgal growth on a structural interface.Fig. 3 Right: BIQ apartment (Muthu, 2016). Left:

7 A photo-bioreactor system

Maintaining energy consumption and lowering the percentage of CO2 in the building depends heavily on its skin. As a result, it is improved by the application of bio-facials, particularly algae facades, which give the exterior of the building additional characteristics like regulating natural light, providing thermal insulation, and lowering thermal loads. Algae, as shown in (Fig. 4), are protozoa that inhabit natural aquatic environments or environments created specifically for them in the PBR. Algae produce more oxygen and have a greater capacity to absorb carbon dioxide due to their more effective photosynthesis than other plants.65Fig. 4 Melbourne Central Tower's, Australia.

The case examines the multi-story industrial complex Cairo Mall's construction, which serves as an illustration of the kind of construction that involves the absorption of excessive power. It is situated in the Giza Governorate of Egypt, which experiences hot, dry weather. We selected this building due to its remote location in a busy city with lots of tourists, a dense population, new places we haven't explored much, and an overabundance of housing. This historic, indoor-use building dates back to approximately 1985. It spans around 140,000 m3 and features a 5,500 m2 air-conditioned floor area. The structure features a covered curtain wall with typically low-profile windows (Fig. 5).Fig. 5 Building Cairo Mall: from left to right, location (Google map), main elevation, typical plan sketch.

8 Exploring the potential of using algal bioactive compounds for cosmeceuticals and pharmaceutical applications

Because of the increased demand for bioactive substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, phenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, microalgae are becoming more and more popular. Novel metabolites from micro-algae will be isolated and identified, which will benefit the meal, nutrition, and trendy health industries. The existence of valuable commodities such as proteins, carotenes, lutein, carbohydrates, phenols, and flavonoids in microalgae is well known.66 These commodities can have positive effects on a variety of commercial packages. To demonstrate that employing wastewater microalgae for the synthesis of bioactive chemicals is feasible, a techno-economic analysis must be conducted Fig. 6.67Fig. 6 Total phenolic determined in algal strains.

8.1 Carotenoids

Herbal carotenoids have advantages that make them a good fit for a variety of pharmaceutical products. Improved product quality is a result of the anti-inflammatory antioxidants, diet, and organic roles of algal carotenoids. Additionally, herbal carotenoids are packaged in a variety of ways in cosmetics, including as sunscreen and anti-aging ingredients (Table 1).Table 1 Carotenoid contents detected (μg/g) and the percentages of undetected carotenoids.

Algal strains	β-Carotene orange-red (µg/g)	Lutein yellow (µg/g)	Lycopene red (µg/g)	Total carotenoids detected (µg/g)	Undetected carotenoids(%)	
Chlorophyta						
Scenedesmus spp.	9.9	2.03	ND	11.93	14	
Bloom	72.3	36.4	14.7	123.4	28	
Dunaliella salina	141.3	10.1	ND	151.4	10	
Cyanophyta						
Oscillatoria limnetica	102.6	33.7	ND	136.3	0	
Spirulina platensis
	7.5	ND	ND	7.5	40	

Studies have demonstrated that there is a strong correlation between the general phenolic compounds and antioxidants.68 Phenolic classes are present in significant quantities in microalgae.69 Bulk phenolic compounds are thought to have several advantageous qualities for physical fitness and to be highly bioavailable.70 Several studies have indicated a strong correlation between overnutrition with herbal phenols and improved endothelium function, reduced blood pressure, a longer life expectancy, a decreased risk of certain chronic diseases, diabetes, obesity, and different types of cancer.71

9 Total flavonoid compounds

Flavonoid compounds' (FC) colorimetric willpower in microalgae biomass is shown in (Fig. 7). Secondary metabolites called flavonoids can function as strong antioxidants that effectively scavenge free radicals, which can migrate from human skeletal and meal commodities and pose a health risk.72 Flavonoids are becoming more and more important due to their antibacterial, anticancer, and antidiabetic properties. This is due to the growing demand for herbal products as anti-aging products in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and beauty sectors.Fig. 7 Total flavonoids detected in algal strains.

10 Total protein contents

An estimate of the protein content in the biomass of the microalgae under study was provided by the total protein content material (Table 2). One of the key reasons to remember different micro-algae species as an unconventional source of protein is their high protein content.73 Since proteins are made up of various amino acids, the amount of adequate dietary protein is mostly controlled by the substance of its amino acid content. Micro-algae have a positive impact on both human and animal fitness by improving the nutritional value of conventional meal plans.Table 2 Total protein content of algal biomass.

Algal species	total protein(mg/g)	
Scenedesmus spp.	210	
Bloom	54.3	
Dunaliella salina	21.5	
Oscillatoria limnetica	67.3	
Spirulina platensis	177.9	

11 Total carbohydrates contents

Because of the various flowering conditions, different amounts of carbohydrates are included in micro-algae biomass (Table 3). In cosmetic products like deodorant, hair conditioning, hair coloring or straightening, emulsifying, binding agent, viscosity control, gel-forming stabilizer, and pore and skin products like pore skin conditioner and emollients, carbohydrates which are thought of as living, uncooked substances play a crucial role. Antiviral, anticancer, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties are found in natural carbohydrates.74Table 3 Total carbohydrates of algal biomass.

Algae strains	Carbohydrates (mg/g)	
Scenedesmus spp.	6.6	
Bloom	1.5	
Dunaliella salina	2.3	
Oscillatoria limnetica	3.5	
Spirulina platensis	6.0	

12 Bioactivity and cytotoxic effect of cyanobacterial toxin against hepatocellular carcinoma

Exclusive niche cyanobacteria are a rich and valuable source of a variety of microbiologically active chemicals that may have remained largely undiscovered and could prove to be a powerful source of anticancer medicines. Using 23S rDNA as a detectable marker from the cyanobacteria genus Plectonema, optical microscopy, and molecular approaches were used to demonstrate the diagnostic value of a filamentous non-heterocystous isolate. To test the cyanotoxicity of different cyanobacterial isolates against the metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line, their organic extract was converted. The largest cytotoxic effect was found in extracts of Cyanothece sp. and Plectonemam terebrans, as they prevented the mobile rise in IC50 by 13.3 % and 8.3 %, respectively.75

These findings suggested that cyanobacteria extracts could be a useful treatment for hepatocellular cancer. A competitive concentration of Cyanothece sp.-treated cells was observed in G0/G1 (52.8 %) and G2/M (0.33), with comparatively fewer cells in stage II (46.4 %), according to the results of the mobile cycle evaluation. On the other hand, compared to untreated cells, the cells that were consumed with Plectonema terebrans demonstrated a higher percentage of HepG2 cells in G0/G1 (63.3 %) and G2/M (0.3 %), as well as coffee in cells in the 2n phase (35.6 %) (Fig. 8). The cyanobacteria Plectonema and Cyanothece sp. show excellent cytotoxic effects on hepatocellular carcinomas through the inhibition of motility, induction of apoptosis, and termination of the mobile cycle at specific stages.Fig. 8 Cell cycle analysis for HepG2 cells treated with Cyanothece sp and Plectonema terebranson extracts.

13 Biodiesel production from Scenedesmus obliquus

One of the most promising feedstocks for producing biodiesel is microalgae.76 They can find a good energy source in multiple main directions. They offer higher oil yields than traditional oilseeds and can be grown outside of farms and woods. Furthermore, they can provide an array of distinct hyper-price derivative forms, such as herbal pigments, cosmetics, antioxidants, nutritional supplements, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and renewable biofuels. With the assistance of physiologists, Scenedesmus obliquus has been identified as a promising micro-algae for the production of biodiesel, primarily due to its biomass and fatty acid yield.77

S. obliquus was developed and cultivated for large-scale manufacture in a major study that used glass bioreactor containers and an almost non-stop lifestyle for three months. In March, April, and May, the cultivation of S. obliquus produced more biomass (0.59 g/L day − 1) and a higher output of fatty acid esterification (20.37 mgL−1 day − 1). Unique flocculants verified for large-scale harvesting essential. demonstrated the highest flocculation performance of 82 % after two hours of use with 250 mg/L NaOH. After the biomass was harvested and dried in the sun, it was determined that the stabilized fatty acid content had significantly blossomed, with the help of 50 % utilization compared to the control. Furthermore, S. obliquus oil's fatty acid composition and iodine group satisfy current biodiesel requirements, qualifying it for usage as a feedstock for biodiesel manufacture.

13.1 Cultivation of s. Obliquus on a massive scale

Grown in glass bioreactor containers: S. obliquus. With an internal length of 60 cm, a width of 30 cm, a peak of 35 cm, and a nominal operational range of 40 L in the middle, the machine was constructed of four mm thick glass. The daylight type illuminates the reactor. A timer is used to help govern the duration of the light cycle. Filtered air is sent through Teflon tubes to the photobioreactor.

13.2 Extraction of lipids:

Specifically, a 15 ml glass vial was created, and it was stored at 25 °C for 24 h. It included 20 g of algal biomass, 100 ml of methanol, and 50 ml of chloroform. For two minutes, the mixture was agitated in a vortex. A second change of 50 mL of chloroform was added, and the mixture was subjected to vigorous shaking for one minute. Subsequently, 50 ml of purified water were added, and the mixture was once more vortexed for two minutes. A separation funnel was used to assist in the layer separation process. The lower layer has been accumulated into a previously unweighted simple vial. A water basin was substituted for evaporation, and the residue was additionally dried for 30 min at 104 °C. Once again, a change in the vial's weight was noted (W2). By deducting W1 from W2 and converting it to %DCW, the lipid content was altered to a determined substance.

One of the most promising feedstocks for the generation of biodiesel is microalgae.77 They possess several key traits that guide them toward a legitimate source of strength. They offer higher oil yields than traditional oilseeds and can be grown in locations far from farms and woods. Together with nutritional supplements, antioxidants, cosmetics, herbal pigments, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and renewable biofuels, they can also provide a wide variety of unusual kinds of exorbitant fee derivatives.

14 Conclusion

Microalgae have drawn the attention of researchers for reasons other than fitness advantages and reevaluation. This study covers the most recent findings on organic hobby and function in addition to highlighting the bioactive components and organic habitats of marine microalgae. Polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and pigments are examples of bioactive materials. In a few scientific and commercial domains, several physiological and pharmacological sports (such as nitrogen fixing, anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticoagulant) are packaged. These marine microalgae bioactive compounds offer a fresh and substantial reassessment for enhancing commercial production and personal fitness care.

Additionally, the extraction, production, and pricing of micro-algae active compounds are determined by their unique, powerful effects; similarly, the era of manufacturing optimization necessitates intensity control. A micro-algae business may be focused on the market, regardless of whether it sells nutrition and fitness products or cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Certain demanding circumstances must be met to comply with this market trend. For example, early cultivation grade viable varieties must be chosen, and producers must begin working on improving their products. This pick will not be smooth at this time due to the range of microalgae. Furthermore, the extraction, production, and pricing of active substances derived from microalgae are determined by their unique and powerful effects; this intensity control is also necessary in the era of manufacturing optimization.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Reham Gamal: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Software, Conceptualization. Mohamed Attia Shreadah: Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors are extremely grateful to the National Institute of Oceanography & Fisheries (NIOF), Alexandria, Egypt, for providing all facilities to complete this work.
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