
==== Front
Food Chem X
Food Chem X
Food Chemistry: X
2590-1575
Elsevier

S2590-1575(24)00638-2
10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101750
101750
Research Article
Evaluation of acrylamide concentration in commercial falafel available in Tehran City by different cooking methods: A health risk assessment study
Faraji Fahimeh a
Shahidi Seyed-Ahmad sa.shahidi@iau.ac.ir
sashahidy@yahoo.com
b⁎
Shariatifar Nabi nshariati@tums.ac.ir
c⁎
Ahmadi Mohammad a
a Department of Food Hygiene, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
b Department of Food Science and Technology, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
c Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
⁎ Corresponding authors. sa.shahidi@iau.ac.irsashahidy@yahoo.comnshariati@tums.ac.ir
18 8 2024
30 10 2024
18 8 2024
23 10175029 5 2024
25 7 2024
17 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
The objective of current research was to measure the amount of acrylamide in falafel samples by GC–MS (Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) technique. The results presented, the average amount of acrylamide in falafel samples was 1.23 ± 0.83 mg/kg (ranged from 0.12 to 3.75 mg/kg). Also, the results showed lower temperature and frying with electric oven and low oil, reduces the average formation of acrylamide (0.73 ± 0.42 mg/kg), while frying at high temperature and frying with gas and immersion in edible oil, increases the average amount of acrylamide formation (1.72 ± 0.86 mg/kg). The highest and lowest average amount of acrylamide was observed in falafel cooked with canola oil (1.57 ± 0.96 mg/kg) and cooked with soybean oil (0.92 ± 0.32 mg/kg), respectively. Based on the MCS (Monte Carlo Simulation) results, the THQ (Target Hazard Quotient) and ILCR (Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk) related to exposure to acrylamide via commercial falafel for adults were 2.72E-2 and 2.77E-5; and for children were 9.69E-2 and 9.25E-5, respectively. Therefore, there doesn't a significant health risk from falafel consumption.

Highlights

• The amount of acrylamide was evaluated by GC–MS in falafel.

• The amount of acrylamide in some samples was higher than the standard.

• Risk assessment for children and adults didn't show any risk for falafel consumption.

Keywords

Edible oil
Food safety
Incremental lifetime Cancer risk
Monte Carlo simulation
Target hazard quotient
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

Falafel is a delicious traditional food made from chickpeas, beans, potatoes, vegetables, spices and edible oil and is widely consumed in the Middle East. A falafel ball of about 17 g contains approximately 48% fat, 38% carbohydrates, 14% protein and also contains elements such as sodium, calcium, iron and potassium. Falafel is one of the main foods of the Palestinian people and is particularly popular in Middle Eastern countries such as Iran. Today, it is considered as a popular ready meal in the world. There are different types of falafel such as chickpea and bean falafel, chickpea falafel with meat and chickpea falafel with potato in different countries, but the most common one is chickpea and potato based (Fikry et al., 2021).

Healthy food consists of useful components for the health of consumers and is almost free of harmful substances. One of the harmful substances is acrylamide (2-propanamide), which is an organic and odorless compound with high solubility in water and a boiling point of 192.6 at atmospheric pressure, which can be formed in food due to thermal processing. In 1987, this substance was declared a possible carcinogen for human by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). In April 2002, the Swedish National Food Industry Association and a group of scientists from Stockholm University announced that acrylamide compound is shaped during food preparation and is existing in numerous food products that undergo thermal processing both industrially and at home. In the same year, it was found that the acrylamide formation, mainly from the effect of asparagine and carbonyl compounds at high temperature, occurs during Maillard browning reactions. Other studies have shown that acrylamide is found in foods that have been heated above 100 degrees Celsius and occurs more in foods of plant origin than animal origin (Aghvami et al., 2023; Başaran et al., 2023; Gazi et al., 2023).

After digestion, acrylamide is absorbed through the digestive tract and extensively metabolized. Metabolism of this substance occurs through 2 chief pathways of combination and epoxidation with glutathione. Acrylamide is metabolized by cytochrome P450 2EI to the epoxide form of glycidamide, and the combination of glycidamide and acrylamide with glutathione is in the form of derivatives of mercapturic acid, which are excreted through urine. Glycidamide has been known to be mutagenic in laboratory studies as well as in living organisms, which is considered the main mutagen and carcinogen (Aghvami et al., 2023; Çebi, 2024; Eerola et al., 2007; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Knol et al., 2009; Matthäus et al., 2004).

Tumor formation in laboratory animals is observed after dietary exposure to acrylamide and possible increase in gene mutation. So that they are disturbed in rats (mammary glands, testes and thyroid) and in mice (mammary glands, lungs, ovaries, skin and stomach). Also, harmful effects on the system of nervous, pre- and post-reproductive development, and male fertility have been observed in animals. However, results from human studies show conflicting and limited evidence of an augmented risk of developing cancer (kidney, endometrial, and ovarian) and, in addition, in two studies, an inverse connection between exposure of dietary to acrylamide compound and birth weight and other symptoms (Matthäus et al., 2004; Mojska et al., 2010; Pedreschi et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Saleh & El-Okazy, 2007; Shahbazi et al., 2022; Williams, 2005).

Procedures for detecting acrylamide compound in foodstuff include LC-ESI-MS/MS (Liquid Chromatography Electrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometric), HPLC-MS/MS (High-performance liquid chromatography- Tandem mass spectrometry) and GC–MS, of which GC–MS has been the most popular due to its cheapness, convenience and accuracy (Gazi et al., 2023; Knol et al., 2009; Matthäus et al., 2004; Mousavi Khaneghah et al., 2022). The EU standard level for French fries (ready-to-eat) is 0.5 mg/kg and for wheat and rye based products is 0.3 mg/kg (((EU), C. R, 2017).

Using the model of MCS in assessment of human health risk can resolve the inability to achieve true consequences owing to the variables' uncertainty. Presently, the model of MCS has been extensively employed in assessment of human health risk induced by harmful combinations in foodstuff products. Consequently, this research usages the model of MCS to comprehensively assess the probabilistic health risks of acrylamide formation in falafel samples (Aghvami et al., 2023).

The consumption of falafel in Iran is increasing due to its cheapness and quick preparation. The main components of falafel include carbohydrate, protein, and fat, which probably have the possibility to form acrylamide during the heating process, so it seems necessary to conduct this research. Therefore, the aim of this research was to measure the acrylamide compound of falafel fried with different edible oils at different temperatures by GC–MS method and risk assessment in children and adults according to per capita consumption using MCS method.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Sample collection

The sample of falafel to measure the amount of acrylamide compound included two types of traditional (fast food) and industrial, which we chose 4 common and widely used brands. Next, 3 types of common oils were used for frying, including sunflower, soybean and canola oils. Also, two different cooking methods (oven or frying) were selected and finally two cooking temperatures including 160 and 180 degrees Celsius were used for cooking falafel. All samples immediately were examined after cooking.

2.2 Instrumentation and reagents

Xanthydrol and acetamide (purity ≥99%), were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Company (USA). The reagents and materials comprising tetrachloroethylene (to conduct GC analysis), hydrochloric acid (HCl) 37%, acrylamide (purity ≥99.9%), potassium hydroxide, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, ethanol (analytical grade), zinc acetate (carrez II) and potassium hexaferrocyanide (carrez I) were obtained from Merck Company (Germenny). Gas chromatographic equipment (model: Agilent 7890 A) coupled to detector of mass selective (model: Agilent 5975c, MSD inert) was used; the column was an Agilent column of capillary HP-5 ms (95%methyl polyorganosiloxane/5%phenyl siloxane; length × I.D.: 30 m × 0.25 mm; df: 0.25 μm). To prepare carrez I (0.25 mol/L), amount of 10.6 g potassium hexaferrocyanide has been added to 100 mL distilled water. Carrez II (0.4 mol/L) has also been made from 21.9 g zinc acetate and 3 mL acetic acid and 97 mL with distilled water. The primary solution of standard of acrylamide and acetamide (2000 μg/mL) was prepared in methanol. To achieve a working solution, the upper solution of standard was diluted with methanol. The solutions of stock and working were kept at 4 °C (Aghvami et al., 2023).

2.3 Preparation of falafel sample

Each falafel sample was suitably minced. Falafel samples (1 g) was weighted and 10 mL of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution in ethanol was added to the samples, and then centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5 min. The phase of supernatant was separated. Afterwards, to precipitate of carbohydrate and protein, 1 mL of solutions (carrez I and II) were added. Then the samples were thoroughly stirred, and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min. Then, acetamide (200 μL) and xanthydrol (60 μL) were added to the mentioned solution. After that, the sample was retained in 25 °C for 30 min and then HCl (2 mL) was added to it. This procedure was carried out to complete the part of derivatization. Next, 1 mL of 2 M potassium hydroxide and 2 mL of 1 M K2HPO4 were added to the solution of sample. After stirring the solution, the pH (6.8–7.2) was adjusted. The solution was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min, then the phase of supernatant was disconnected. Next step, C2CL4 (80 μL) and ethanol (450 μL) were added to the sample solution, then, the solution was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min. Finally, The supernatant phase was removed and the remaining phase (1 μL) was injected in-to the GC–MS equipment (Aghvami et al., 2023).

2.4 Conditions of CG-MS equipment

In this study, helium was the carrier gas (a 0.8 mL/min flow rate). The temperature of injector was 280 °C, the mode of injection was splitless, and the volume injection was 1 μL. The initial temperature of the oven was at 100 °C, holding for 1 min. Also, the temperature of ramp rate was set at 20 °C/min to 300 °C and held for 20 min. The total run time was 21 min. The retention time for target compound and internal standard were 10.2 and 9.9 min, respectively. Based on the mode of Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM), the measurement of acrylamide in chosen samples was carried out (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kitson et al., 1996).

2.5 Method performance

From acrylamide standard solution, the curve of calibration was constructed ranging from 20 to 200 (ng/g) in methanol. The LOQ (quantification limit) and LOD (detection limit) were calculated applying the calibration curve slope (S) and response standard deviation (σ) according to the following formula:LOD33/S

LOQ=3LOD

In this study, The LOD and LOQ scores were 20 and 66 ng/g, respectively. By spiking 3 replicas of acrylamide real sample, the rate recovery was evaluated ranging from 10 to 50 μg/L. The recovery rate of the technique was 94.5%. The calibration curve was linear among 20 to 200 ng/g with 0.9976 of the linear correlation coefficient (r2). The RSD (Relative standard deviation) was evaluated through investigation of 6 repetitive acrylamide compound and was 9.85. In Fig. S1, examples of chromatograms of real and spiked samples can be seen.

2.6 Exposure and risk assessment

A Monte Carlo Simulation was conducted to assess the health risks from exposure to various forms of acrylamide found in falafel. This evaluation included estimating the EDI (estimated daily intake), as well as assessing the potential for both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks, according to the methodology developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Furthermore, the non-carcinogenic risk associated with acrylamide ingestion in falafel was evaluated using the THQ (target hazard quotient) and ILCR (incremental lifetime cancer risk) according to the following equations:(Yaminifar et al., 2021):(1) THQ=EDIRfD

(2) EDI=C×EDi×EFi×IRBW×AT

(3) ILCr=CSF×EDI

Where CDI is the level of the acrylamide concentration (mg/kg); The oral reference dose for acrylamide was 0.002 mg/kg.day (EPA, 2022), C is the acrylamide concentration in acrylamide (per mg/kg dry. weight); EF (days/year) is the exposure frequency (365 days/year)(Shahsavari et al., 2022); Edi (year) is the exposure duration (children = 6 years and elders = 30) (EPA, 2015b); IRi is the ingestion rate (2 g/day) (Roudbari et al., 2021); BWi is e average consumers' body weight (children = 20 and elders =70 kg)(Karimi et al., 2023), AT is The average time (days) (Mehraie et al., 2024). ILCR is the possibility of developing cancer of acrylamide, CSF relates to the carcinogenic slope factor of 0.5 (mg/kg/day) − 1 recommended by USPEA. It is also important to introduce the concept of a hazard quotient. Theoretically, a hazard quotient (HQ) index is a simple and flexible approach that is the ratio of the potential exposure to the acrylamide, relative to the level at which no adverse effects are predicted (Khalili et al., 2022). When THQ < 1, It means that the risk of health to populations of humans is acceptable (Seilani et al., 2021).

2.7 Statistical analysis

The results were shown to be as mean ± SD and the comparisons of mean acrylamide levels were evaluated by Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric tests using the SPSS (version 22.0) program. Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) is one of the arbitrary algorithms used to analytics of uncertainty and information regarding issues about health risks. The MCS analyses were carried out by Crystal Ball software (version 11.1.2.4.600, Oracle, Decisioneering, Denver, CO, USA) (Liao et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2019).

3 Result and discussion

3.1 The amount of acrylamide formation in all falafel samples

Table 1 revealed that the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples. Based to the mentioned table, the average amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples was equal to 1.23 ± 0.83 mg/kg (in the range of 0.12 to 3.75 mg/kg).Table 1 The amount of acrylamide formation in all falafel samples (mg/kg).

Table 1	Mean	Median	Minimum	Maximum	Std. Deviation	
Total	1.23	1.06	0.12	3.75	0.83	

Falafel and other food items can contain various dangerous pollutants such as heterocyclic amines, furans, acrylamide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, etc., which can be transmitted through the environment (water, soil and air), during harvesting, during washing, during preparation in the factory, through packaging and finally during preparation (high temperature, etc.) transferred to the food (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Matthäus et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Seilani et al., 2021; Shahbazi et al., 2022).

In this study, since the EU standard for french fries (ready-to-eat) is 0.5 mg/kg and for wheat and rye based products is 0.3 mg/kg, It can be stated that in some samples, the amount of acrylamide was higher than the existing standards. The amount of acrylamide can increase for various reasons in falafel or other food, among which it can be cooking temperature, type and amount of oil used, type and amount of falafel raw materials (chickpea, flour, vegetables, salt, spices and etc.) pointed out (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Matthäus et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Seilani et al., 2021; Shahbazi et al., 2022).

Table 2, revealed that the quantity of acrylamide in past studies and in different food matrices. By comparing the results of this table, it can be proven that the amount of acrylamide in different foods is different, which can be due to the mentioned reasons.Table 2 Comparing the results of acrylamide levels in previous studies.

Table 2Researchers	Food matrixes	Countries	Results	Ref.	
Biedermann et al.	Bread	Switzerland	5–16 μg/kg	(Biedermann et al., 2010)	
El-Ziney et al.	Bread	Saudi Arabia	40–90 μg/kg	(El-Ziney et al., 2009)	
Pugajeva et al.	Bread	Latvia	<10–152 μg/kg	(Pugajeva et al., 2014)	
Matthys et al.	Bread	Belgium	27–36 μg/kg	(Matthys et al., 2005)	
Konings et al.	Toasted bread	Netherlands	<30–1430 μg/kg	(Konings et al., 2003)	
Normandin et al.	Toasted bread	Canada	<10–107 μg/kg	(Normandin et al., 2013)	
Pedreschi et al.	Potato slices	Chile	Frying temperature-time conditions range: at 150 °C for 7 min and at 190 °C for 3.5 min, the level of acrylamide raised from 500 to 4500 μg/kg.	(Pedreschi et al., 2004)	
Matthäus et al.	French fries	Germany	Frying temperature-time conditions range: at respectively 170 °C and 190 °C for ten minutes, the level of acrylamide raised from 800 to 3700 μg/kg.	(Matthäus et al., 2004)	
Knol et al.	Potato crisps	Sweden	Temperature-time–conditions range: at 160 °C (constant temperature after around 1.5–2.0 min frying at 180 °C initial temperature of oil) for respectively 1.5, 4 and 12 min, the level of acrylamide raised from 0.2 to 12 and reduced after twelve minutes to 10 mg/kg.	(Knol et al., 2009)	
Williams	French fries	England	Frying temperature-time conditions range: at 150 °C for three minutes and at 190 °C for five minutes, the level of acrylamide raised from 1995 to 7079 μg/kg.	(Williams, 2005)	
Romani et al.	French fries	Italy	Frying temperature-time conditions range: at 120 °C for respectively 4, 5, 7 and 9 min, the level of acrylamide raised from 50, 68, 208 and 830 μg/kg.	(Romani et al., 2008)	
Seilani et al.	Commercial nuggets samples	Iran	They findings presented the traditional method of frying has significant impact on the rise of acrylamide compound compared to industrial method of frying and it was also mentioned the different time and temperatures of cooking have significant impact on rise of formation of acrylamide compound (p < 0.05), nevertheless type of edible oils had no significant impact. The minimum level of acrylamide compound was detected in chicken nuggets (7.3 ± 0.1 ng/g) which fried by method of industrial (at 180 °C for 3 min) and corn oil, while the maximum level of acrylamide compound was detected in shrimp nuggets (27 ± 1.5 ng/g) which fried by traditional method of cooking (at 220 °C for 6 min) and colza oil.	(Seilani et al., 2021)	
Aghvami et al.	Cakes	Iran	They stated the minimum and maximum average level of acrylamide compound among samples was associated to the cocoa cake samples (10.14 ng/g) and the cinnamon cakes (212.28 ng/g), respectively. Acrylamide level for samples of unflavored, samples of cinnamon cake and samples of cocoa cake were 61.86 ng/g, 169.38–212.28 ng/g and 10.14–44.64 ng/g, respectively.	(Aghvami et al., 2023)	

3.2 The impact of temperature and type of cooking on the amount of acrylamide compound

Table 3 revealed that the impact of temperature and type of cooking on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples. The results showed that the lower temperature by frying with an electric oven and low oil caused a decrease in the average amount of acrylamide formation (0.73 ± 0.42 mg/kg), while high temperature frying with gas and immersion in oil caused an increase in the average amount of acrylamide formation (1.72 ± 0.86 mg/kg).Table 3 The impact of temperature, type of cooking and oil type on the amount of acrylamide compound (mg/kg).

Table 3temp	Mean	Median	Minimum	Maximum	Std. Deviation	p value	
160 °C (electric oven)	0.73	0.75	0.12	1.54	0.42	0.00	
180 °C (frying)	1.72	1.56	0.73	3.75	0.86	
Canola oil	1.57	1.29	0.24	3.75	0.96	0.25	
Sunflower oil	1.20	1.14	0.42	2.10	0.55	
soybean oil	0.92	0.81	0.12	2.04	0.32	

These results showed that probably high temperature and high oil content can be effective on increasing the amount of acrylamide contamination (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Matthäus et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Seilani et al., 2021; Shahbazi et al., 2022).

3.3 The impact of oil type on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples

Table 3 reveals the impact of oil type on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples. According to this table, the maximum average amount of acrylamide was observed in falafel samples cooked with canola oil (1.57 ± 0.96 mg/kg) and the minimum average amount was observed in falafel samples cooked with soybean oil (0.92 ± 0.32 mg/kg). The average order of acrylamide according to the type of oil in falafel samples was canola oil>sunflower oil>soybean oil.

The higher or lower amount of acrylamide according to the type of oil can be due to oil composition, smoke point temperature (the highest smoke point is related to soybean oil), oil production methods, etc., which can affect the amount of acrylamide formation (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Matthäus et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Seilani et al., 2021; Shahbazi et al., 2022).

3.4 The impact of brand type on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples

Table 4 shows the impact of brand type on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples. According to this table, the maximum average amount of acrylamide was observed in brand B (1.63 ± 0.87 mg/kg) and the minimum average amount of acrylamide compound was observed in brand A (0.61 ± 0.32 mg/kg). The average order of acrylamide according to the type of brand in falafel samples was B > D > C > A.Table 4 The impact of brand type on the amount of acrylamide compound in falafel samples (mg/kg).

Table 4brand	Mean	Median	Minimum	Maximum	Std. Deviation	p value	
A	0.61	0.58	0.12	1.20	0.32	0.115	
B	1.63	1.26	0.57	3.75	0.87	
C	1.11	0.98	0.39	2.04	0.62	
D	1.56	1.38	0.89	2.73	0.67	

The higher or lower amount of acrylamide in different brands can be due to the use of different raw materials and different methods of preparation (Aghvami et al., 2023; Kaur & Halford, 2023; Matthäus et al., 2004; Romani et al., 2008; Seilani et al., 2021; Shahbazi et al., 2022).

3.5 Health risk assessment

The USEPA conducted Monte Carlo simulations for human health risk assessment, estimating the risk of acrylamide in falafel samples for both children and adults. Monte Carlo methodology is frequently employed in stochastic risk assessment. The research utilized Monte Carlo simulations to assess input value uncertainty, examine probability distributions, model exposure, and evaluate the risk of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic acrylamide in falafel. The EDI of acrylamide concentration through the falafel samples' consumption is indicated in Table 5. The Estimated daily intake (95th percentile) of acrylamide of falafel through the oral was 1.83E-4, and 5.10E-5 mg/kg body-weight/day for children and adults, respectively. The result revealed that the daily intake was below the Tolerable daily intake (TDI) for neurotoxicity (0.04 mg/kg-day). Iran, like other Asian countries, has experienced an increase in fast food consumption as a result of urbanization, which has caused a shift towards processed and convenient sn fast foods in dietary habits. Opting for fresh, minimally processed ingredients when cooking at home and utilizing traditional cooking techniques and food products, can help reduce the risk of health problems with dietary acrylamide exposure(Aghvami et al., 2023).Table 5 The Simulation results for probability and frequency of EDI (mg/kg bw/day) of acrylamide in falafel samples.

Table 5Percentiles	children	adults	
children (acrylamide)	adults (acrylamide)	
5%	8.09E-5	2.33E-5	
50%	1.22E-4	3.48E-5	
75%	1.44E-4	4.09E-5	
95%	1.83E-4	5.10E-5	

Several studies have examined daily acrylamide intake, but consistent results were not obtained due to variations in acrylamide levels, consumption habits, intake rates, and concentrations found in commonly consumed food items. For example, the mean dietary intake value in Japan was 0.0068 mg/kg body-weight/day among 40–69 year olds (Liu et al., 2019); in Iran was 0.0551 mg/kg body-weight/day among Iranian 11–17 year olds (Mousavi Khaneghah et al., 2022), in a Spanish was 0.00053 mg/kg body-weight/day (Delgado-Andrade et al., 2012); in French was 0.00043 mg/kg body-weight/day for adults (Commission, E, 2011).

This study used Monte Carlo simulation to evaluate uncertainty in input values, analyze probability distributions simulate exposure, and assess the risk of the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic. The health risk assessment outcomes are indicated in Fig. 1. The target hazard quotient (THQ) (95th percentile) of acrylamide of falafel through the oral was, 9.69E-2 and 2.72E-2 for children and adults, respectively; indicating no health risks related to intake of acrylamide from the selected falafel samples.Fig. 1 The Simulation results for probability and frequency of cancer risk (ILCR), and THQ of acrylamide in falafel samples.

Fig. 1

The distribution frequency of Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for adults and children is shown in Fig. 1. An ILCR greater than ILCR > 1 × 10−4 is considered harmful with a significant cancer risk due to pollution, whereas an ILCR less than ILCR < 1 × 10−6 is regarded as insignificant with a negligible cancer risk. The order of ILCR (95th percentile) of acrylamide through the falafel for children and adults was 9.25E-5, and 2.77E-5, respectively; indicating no health risks related to the intake of acrylamide from the selected falafel samples. Thus, the risk is not significant to carcinogenic health effects (< 1 × 10−4). Likewise, Yazdanpanah et al. (Nwoke et al., 2021) evaluated the health risk assessment of process-related acrylamide in bread in Iran. According to the health risk assessment, the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk indexes for acrylamide were harmful with a significant health risk for all people in Tehran and Shiraz.

Likewise, Yu et al. (Yu et al., 2023) evaluated the health risk assessment of acrylamide in food consumed. The results indicated that the carcinogenic risk indexes for acrylamide posed potential human health concerns for all individuals in Singapore.

Consumers can reduce their intake of high-acrylamide foods like meat products, French fries, potato chips, crackers, and wafers by being mindful of their snacking habits and choices.

4 Conclusion

In the current investigation, the level of acrylamide compound in falafel samples (with different brands and cooked at different temperatures, different cooking methods and different oils) was evaluated by GC–MS procedure. The results showed that the level of acrylamide compound in a number of samples was upper than the existing standards. Also, the samples cooked in an electric oven at a lower temperature have a lower level of contamination than the samples cooked in oil in immersion mode at a higher temperature. The average order of acrylamide according to the type of oil in falafel samples was canola oil>sunflower oil>soybean oil and the average order of acrylamide according to the type of brand in falafel samples was B > D > C > A. The uncertain analysis of the health risks of investigated acrylamide in falafel showed that there is no significant non-carcinogenic risk (THQ <1) and carcinogenic risk (ILCR <1E-4) for adults and children. It is recommended to incorporate health risk assessment findings and details contributing to acrylamide in dietary patterns into carefully planned food monitoring data. Finally, since the concentration of acrylamide compound in some falafel samples was higher than the European Union standards, the need for more care during production and the use of higher quality raw materials seems necessary. One of the limitations of this study is the lack of financial resources, which it is suggested to evaluate this contamination (acrylamide) in similar products. Both the food industry and consumers have a role in reducing the risk of health problems with dietary acrylamide exposure due to increased fast foods in Iranian diets. This study highlights the importance of educating consumers on ways to limit acrylamide intake and the implementation of best practices in food production to minimize acrylamide formation.

Funding

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The authors will follow the Ethical Responsibilities of Authors and COPE rules. All authors agree to publish.

Consent for publication

All the authors give their consent for the submitted manuscript to be published in the Journal of Food Chemistry: X.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Fahimeh Faraji: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Seyed-Ahmad Shahidi: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization. Nabi Shariatifar: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Mohammad Ahmadi: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The study does not involve any human or animal testing, the authors declare, and they do not have any conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A Supplementary data

Supplementary material

Image 1

Data availability

All data are presented in the manuscript

Acknowledgement

This is thesis of Fahimeh Faraji that was inducted in Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran. This study was carried out by the researchers in the Tehran University of Medial Sciences.

Appendix A Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101750.
==== Refs
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