
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)12014-2
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35983
e35983
Research Article
Assessing task-based language needs of students of philosophy: Comparing teachers and students' attitudes
Li Lingxi lingxili8790@outlook.com

School of Maxism, Guangdong University of Technology, 510520, Guangzhou, China
08 8 2024
30 8 2024
08 8 2024
10 16 e359834 4 2024
24 7 2024
7 8 2024
© 2024 The Author
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and Needs Analysis (NA) have been of significant interest to researchers for decades. Reviewing related studies strongly emphasizes NA as the foundational step in ESP course development. However, the task-based language needs (TBLNs) of philosophy students have yet to be thoroughly examined from the perspectives of both teachers and undergraduate students. Employing a mixed-method research design, 30 informants were selected via theoretical sampling for the qualitative phase and interviewed to elucidate TBLNs at the university level. In the quantitative phase, a researcher-developed scale was administered to 450 philosophy teachers and students, but 405 returned the completely filled-in questionnaires. Data analysis involved exploratory factor analysis and independent samples t-tests. Results indicated that philosophy students' TBLNs encompassed seven main themes comprising 27 distinct needs.

Furthermore, the developed scale demonstrated acceptable reliability, divergent validity, and convergent validity. Statistical analysis also revealed significant differences in mean scores between students and teachers across most identified tasks. These findings suggest that philosophy students require proficiency in all language skills and sub-skills to succeed in their studies. The implications of these findings are significant for ESP educators, university administrators, policymakers, and administrators within philosophy departments, both theoretically and pedagogically.

Keywords

Academic task
Needs analysis
Task-based language needs
Philosophy students
Mixed-method design
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

Needs analysis (NA) has a long history in developing ESP programs [[1], [2], [3]]. A well-conducted NA can result in courses designed to ensure that students learn precisely what they need. Despite the significant role of NA in ESP course design, more attention should be paid to NA practice itself. Different researchers have interpreted The term NA differently [[4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]]. As Altschuld and Witkin [14] argue, NA is "a set of systematic procedures pursued in order to establish priorities based on identified needs and make decisions attempting improvement of a program and allocation of resources". Needs analysis was also described as "the means by which an evaluator determines whether there is a need for a program, and if so, what program services are most appropriate to that end" [15].

It has also been claimed that planning the ESP curriculum is coupled with assessing language needs [[7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12],16,17]. With appropriate needs analysis, the content of the designed curriculum for classroom practice might be balanced because of the curriculum designers' personal beliefs, misunderstandings, and lack of familiarity with the learners' real academic needs.

A review of the related literature shows a more significant number of studies on different branches of ESP [18,19]. However, only a few studies investigated the language competence, skills, sub-skills, and tasks that philosophy students need to acquire to accomplish the tasks they need to do through using English and doing their duties, tasks, and jobs in real working situations. Therefore, this study can become an essential platform for English teachers to help philosophy students know all about the language needs of philosophy students. It can also be used as a platform for philosophy students to get familiar with tasks they must do in academic and target situations. Due to the scarcity of studies on academic and real-life TBLNs of the students of philosophy from the perspectives of both the students and teachers/graduates, this study was undertaken to investigate the academic and real-life task-based Language needs of students of philosophy.

2 Theoretical framework

The following sections review the background of Task-Based Language Needs (TBLNs) and some related studies. In the following sub-section, task-based language needs are defined, and some recently published studies on this type of language need are reviewed. In the last section, some studies on needs analysis are reported.

2.1 Task-based language needs

The review of the related studies on needs analysis shows that different types of needs, including present-situation analysis, target-situation analysis, and learning situation analysis, have been reported as prominent landmarks in NA studies. Following the trends and changes in language teaching, Lambert (20) introduced TBLN. Mao [21] believes task-based instruction is a new approach in education practice. It is also thought that in task-based classrooms, the chief focus is the performance of tasks. Rather than being a unit of grammar to be digested or a collection of lexical items to be remembered, the task is a means of learning the language by doing tasks [21]. Lambert (20) has also argued that functions may provide a valid unit of analysis, and "people generally understand their L2 use in terms of the tasks that they perform rather than the vocabulary or grammar that they employ. In the same direction, Long [14] has stated that functions might make it possible for language learners and future employers to comprehend and take a decisive role in what might happen in the classroom. Tasks as long [15] and Nezakatgoo and Alibakhshi [22] believe might make it possible to collect the necessary data directly from subject specialists in the field rather than non-subject specialists such as English teachers who might understand the language codes but probably have no experience with the actual communicative demands which learners face in the workplace.

Regarding how language tasks can be used as units of analysis in second/foreign course design, three types of tasks have been distinguished [14,15]. The first is real-life or target situation tasks that people do in everyday life (e.g., reserving a hotel). The second step in Long's framework is to categorize the target tasks into more abstract or superordinate categories to provide a basis for designing courses to meet the needs of heterogeneous learners without covering each target task separately [20]. Finally, the third type of task is pedagogic tasks, activities language learners do in the classroom.

2.2 Related studies on needs analysis (NA)

The language needs across various fields of study have been extensively explored quantitatively and qualitatively over the past few decades [[21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30]]. Researchers such as [[21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33]] emphasize the significant role of needs analysis (NA) in both general English and ESP course design. To the extent Belcher [16] suggests integrating it into teachers' instructional practices, NA is considered a fundamental aspect of ESP course design. Furthermore, Bosher and Smalkoski [34] utilized observations and interviews to assess the needs of immigrant students while designing a course based on a needs analysis project.

Moattarian and Tahririan [27] investigated the language needs of Iranian graduate students in tourism management through a mixed methods approach, including questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Despite variations in wants, lacks, and necessities, the study highlighted the importance of emphasizing all four language skills in ESP courses for tourism management graduate students. Similarly, Alsamadian [35] conducted a study to define the English language needs of civil engineering and industrial engineering students, revealing a focus on receptive skills in ESP classes, particularly reading and listening. Bouabdallah [36] analyzed the language needs of biology master's students, identifying listening, speaking, and translating texts as crucial skills, with writing and speaking perceived as challenging.

Bedoya, Valencia, and Montoya [37] investigated the English language needs of professors at a Colombian university, finding a desire to improve oral and listening skills for research publication and teaching purposes. In a Turkish academic context, Kazan and Mede [38] assessed the target needs of students in an ESP program at a fine arts faculty, emphasizing language strategies for reading academic texts, writing email messages, improving presentation skills, and learning key terms.

Clement and Murugavel [39] highlighted a discrepancy between the aims of English language courses in engineering departments and the real-life needs of engineering students in India. Similarly, Nezakatgoo and Alibakhshi [22] found a mismatch between pedagogical and real-life language tasks in ESP programs for medical sciences students in Iran.

Atai and Dashtestani [7] examined stakeholders' attitudes towards integrating the Internet into an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) reading course in Iran, revealing a discrepancy between endorsement and actual implementation. Buriro and Soomro [40] assessed the language needs of undergraduate civil engineering students, with students prioritizing productive skills (speaking and writing) and teachers emphasizing the importance of all language skills.

Recently, Alibakhshi et al. [32] and Alibakhshi et al. [33] investigated task-based language needs in ESP for marine engineering students, highlighting the importance of academic and real-life tasks in mastering receptive and productive language skills for academic and professional success. These studies underscore the multifaceted nature of language needs across various disciplines and emphasize the importance of aligning language instruction with learners' specific contexts and requirements.

2.3 Research gap and objectives

Comparing the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards assessing task-based language needs offers valuable insights into the dynamics of language learning within the philosophical domain. This comparison allows for an examination of whether teachers' perceptions align with those of students regarding the language skills necessary for completing tasks in the curriculum, such as argumentation, critical thinking, and clarity of expression. Any discrepancies in attitudes between teachers and students can highlight potential gaps in communication or understanding, signalling a need for reassessment or clarification of learning objectives. By identifying these gaps, educators can tailor their instructional strategies to meet student expectations better and promote more effective pedagogical approaches. Moreover, aligning language instruction with student attitudes can enhance engagement and motivation, as students are more likely to be motivated to engage actively in the learning process when they perceive tasks as meaningful and relevant to their academic and professional goals. Incorporating tasks that resonate with student priorities and interests fosters a more positive learning environment conducive to language acquisition and skill development.

Additionally, a comparative analysis of attitudes encourages constructive feedback and reflection from teachers and students, promoting continuous professional development for teachers and empowering students to take ownership of their language learning journey. This comparison is valuable for curriculum design, instructional delivery, and student engagement within the philosophical domain. To fill in the gap, the following research questions are raised:1. What are the most frequently reported task-based language needs of philosophy students?

2. Does the developed scale of task-based language need scale to enjoy acceptable reliability and validity?

3. Are there significant differences between philosophy teachers' and students' attitudes to task-based language needs?

3 Method

3.1 Sampling

A mixed-methods approach was adopted to assess the task-based language needs of philosophy students. For the qualitative phase, theoretical sampling guided the selection of 30 undergraduate students and teachers from six universities in China. This method ensured participants' theoretical relevance to the research question. The qualitative phase aimed at exploring the TBLNs that the philosophy students might encounter while studying at college. Therefore, two groups of people were recruited as the informants: students (n = 20) and teachers who used to teach philosophy to undergraduate students (n = 10). The rationale for the sample size was data saturation, which occurred when the twentieth and tenth undergraduate students were interviewed.

In the quantitative phase of the study, two distinct research designs were employed: a quantitative survey and a post-facto research method. The quantitative survey involved systematically collecting data through structured questionnaires distributed to a sample of philosophy students and their teachers. This approach facilitated the assessment of task-based language needs among students and allowed for the quantification of attitudes held by teachers and students. It was also used to estimate the reliability and validity of the questionnaire. Surveys are commonly utilized in research to efficiently gather information from many participants and quantify responses to specific questions or variables [41].

Conversely, the post-facto research method, also known as ex post facto research, entailed examining pre-existing data or conditions without direct manipulation by the researcher [41]. In this study, researchers analyzed existing data or conditions related to the attitudes of teachers and students toward task-based language needs in the context of philosophy education. By retrospectively exploring these attitudes, the researchers aimed to identify any disparities or similarities between teachers' and students' perspectives. Post-facto research methods offer a valuable means of investigating relationships between variables without direct intervention, particularly when ethical or practical considerations preclude experimental manipulation. In the quantitative phase, convenience sampling facilitated the recruitment of 230 undergraduate students from the selected universities. In addition, 220 philosophy teachers from the universities mentioned above and high schools in Guangzhou and Shenzhen were selected and invited to participate in the study. About 10 % of the recruited participants still need to return the questionnaires, which yielded 405 (205 students and 200 teachers) participants.

3.2 Instrumentation

Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with the selected participants. These interviews provided a platform for participants to articulate their perspectives and experiences regarding task-based language needs. Quantitative data were gathered using a researcher-developed questionnaire based on insights from the qualitative phase. The questionnaire included structured items with predefined response options, ensuring standardized data collection and effective measurement of relevant variables. The questionnaire consists of 25 items which were reduced to 7 factors: Reading skill (7 items), Writing skill (6 items), Speaking skill (5 items), Listening skill (2 items), Vocabulary and Language Use (2 items), Critical thinking (5 items), and Collaboration and Interaction (2 items). The reliability and validity indices of the instruments are mentioned in the results section.

3.3 Data collection

The study was carried out in different steps. First, teachers and students were selected. Semi-structured interviews were designed, and participants for the qualitative phase were interviewed. The qualitative phase involved conducting and audio-recording semi-structured interviews with participants to explore their attitudes towards task-based language needs. Transcriptions of the interviews were subjected to thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns.

A quantitative phase questionnaire was developed and administered based on this phase's results. In the quantitative phase, participants were recruited, and the questionnaire was administered. The quantitative phase proceeded through several stages. Initially, participants were chosen, followed by the questionnaire distribution, which included a Chinese translation to ensure clarity. Data collection utilized a TBLN scale comprising 25 items rated on a 9-point Likert scale.

The criteria for selecting faculty members included teaching graduate students of marine engineering and familiarity with situations where ME graduates might work after graduation. Both teachers and students were born in China. They were informed about the purpose of the study and assured that the collection would be kept confidential. Some participants were contacted through emails or social networking apps like Telegram or WhatsApp, while others were met face-to-face.

3.4 Data analysis

The qualitative data analysis involved a detailed thematic analysis. First, the audio-recorded semi-structured interviews were transcribed verbatim. These transcriptions were then meticulously reviewed to identify recurring themes and patterns related to participants' attitudes towards task-based language needs. The coding process was both inductive and deductive, allowing for the emergence of new themes while also categorizing data into predefined themes based on the research questions. The coded data were then organized into broader thematic categories that captured the nuanced perspectives of the participants. This thematic analysis provided a rich, detailed understanding of the qualitative data, which informed the development of the questionnaire for the quantitative phase and ensured that it accurately reflected the issues and attitudes identified in the interviews.

Exploratory factor analysis, specifically principal axis factoring (PAF) with direct Oblimin Rotation, was conducted on these items after ensuring data suitability. This involved checking normality, which was confirmed within acceptable ranges, and assessing sampling adequacy using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure. Bartlett's test of sphericity indicated sufficient inter-item correlations for PAF. Through this analysis, the 25 items were condensed into seven factors, demonstrating internal solid consistency with a reliability score exceeding 0.89. Participant mean scores across tasks were calculated and ranked, allowing for comparing perspectives between students and teachers through inferential statistics, specifically independent sample t-tests.

4 Results

4.1 Informants’ perceptions of types of TBLNs of students of philosophy

Research question 1 aimed at exploring the informants' perceptions of types of TBLNs of philosophy students. Interviews with 30 philosophy teachers and students at different Universities in China were transcribed and analyzed using open and axial coding. Twenty-five task-based language needs were extracted and reduced into seven axial codes. Each is explained and exemplified in the following sections.

4.2 TNLNs for reading skill

Reading skills in philosophy are vital for understanding complex ideas, summarizing arguments, critically evaluating them, and engaging with primary sources. Teacher 1 stated, as a teacher, I stress the importance of thorough comprehension; as philosopher, Bertrand Russell once cautioned, "The trouble with the world is that the stupid are cocksure and the intelligent are full of doubt." This highlights the necessity of humility and critical reflection in approaching philosophical texts. Conversely, student B found resonance in Jean-Paul Sartre's observation, "Everything has been figured out, except how to live," expressing the challenge of reconciling philosophical theories with lived experience and personal growth. These quotations underscore the nuanced and multifaceted nature of philosophical reading, emphasizing the need for both intellectual rigour and existential inquiry in philosophical exploration.

4.3 TBLNs for writing skill

Writing skills in philosophy encompass composing essays or papers, constructing logical arguments, developing counterarguments, translating texts, formulating philosophical questions, and reflecting on personal beliefs. Teacher C stressed the importance of clarity and coherence in writing, echoing the sentiment of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who stated, "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent." This underscores the need for precision and conciseness in conveying philosophical ideas. Similarly, student D expressed the challenge of articulating complex thoughts, resonating with Simone de Beauvoir's observation, "I tore myself away from the safe comfort of certainties through my love for truth; and truth rewarded me." This highlights the transformative potential of writing in philosophy, enabling individuals to grapple with uncertainty and pursue more profound understanding. These quotations emphasize the dual aspects of writing in philosophy: the pursuit of clarity and the embrace of intellectual exploration and growth.

4.4 TBLNs for speaking (oral communication)

Speaking skills in philosophy involve engaging in debates and discussions, presenting ideas orally, explaining concepts, defending positions persuasively, and participating in study sessions. For instance, Teacher F emphasized the importance of articulating ideas effectively, echoing the words of Plato, who said, "Wise men speak because they have something to say; fools because they have to say something." This highlights the significance of meaningful contribution and thoughtful engagement in philosophical discourse. In addition, student G expressed the challenge of articulating complex ideas, resonating with the sentiment of Aristotle, who observed, "It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it." This underscores the importance of critical thinking and open-mindedness in oral communication, allowing for exploring diverse perspectives and ideas. These quotations underscore the dual aspects of speaking in philosophy: the necessity of meaningful engagement and the cultivation of intellectual humility and curiosity.

4.5 TBLNs for listening

Listening skills in philosophy entail understanding complex arguments during debates and lectures on philosophical topics. Teacher B underscored the importance of attentive listening, aligning with the wisdom of Epictetus, who said, "We have two ears and one mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we speak." This emphasizes the value of active listening and receptivity in philosophical inquiry. Furthermore, student C expressed the challenge of comprehending intricate philosophical ideas, echoing the sentiment of Confucius, who remarked, "To see what is right and not do it is the want of courage." This highlights the importance of attentive listening as a precursor to meaningful engagement and intellectual growth in philosophical discourse. These quotations underscore the dual aspects of listening in philosophy: the necessity of receptive engagement and the cultivation of courage to confront and grapple with complex ideas.

4.6 TBLNs for vocabulary and language use

Vocabulary and language use in philosophy encompasses understanding specialized terminology and adapting concepts to diverse cultural contexts. Teacher J stressed the significance of precise language, echoing the words of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who stated, "The limits of my language mean the limits of my world." This emphasizes the importance of nuanced vocabulary in expressing philosophical ideas accurately. Similarly, student L expressed the challenge of navigating cultural nuances, resonating with the sentiment of Lao Tzu, who said, "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step." This highlights the transformative potential of language in bridging cultural divides and fostering cross-cultural understanding in philosophical discourse. These quotations underscore the dual aspects of vocabulary and language use in philosophy: the necessity of precision in expression and the adaptability to diverse cultural contexts.

4.7 Critical thinking

Critical thinking in philosophy involves evaluating arguments, applying theories to real-world situations, critiquing texts, evaluating relevance and applicability, and reflecting on personal beliefs. Teacher L emphasized the importance of rigorous analysis, echoing the words of Socrates, who said, "The unexamined life is not worth living." This underscores the necessity of critical reflection and inquiry in philosophical exploration. On the other hand, student F expressed the challenge of navigating complex philosophical concepts, resonating with the sentiment of Rene Descartes, who remarked, "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). This highlights the transformative power of critical thinking in shaping personal beliefs and understanding of the world. These quotations underscore the dual aspects of critical thinking in philosophy: the necessity of inquiry and examination and the pursuit of self-awareness and understanding.

4.8 Collaboration and interaction

Collaboration and interaction in philosophy involve working with peers on projects or group discussions and comparing and contrasting different philosophical perspectives. For example, teacher K emphasized the value of collaborative inquiry, echoing the sentiment of Aristotle, who said, "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." This underscores the importance of collective exploration and exchange of ideas in philosophical discourse. Similarly, student J highlighted the challenge of reconciling diverse viewpoints, resonating with the words of Friedrich Nietzsche, who remarked, "You have your way. I have my way. As for the right, correct, and only way, it does not exist." This highlights the complexity of philosophical dialogue and the necessity of openness to different perspectives. These quotations underscore the dual aspects of collaboration and interaction in philosophy: the potential for synergy and collective understanding and the recognition of diversity and individuality in philosophical inquiry.

4.9 Reliability and validity of the research questionnaire

The second research question investigated the reliability and validity of the developed scale. Table 1 presents the validity and reliability assessments for various constructs, including Reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, Listening skills, Vocabulary and Language Use, Critical thinking, and Collaboration and Interaction. For convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) values range from 0.756 to 0.933, indicating acceptable convergence of the indicators within each construct. This suggests that the indicators within each construct are measuring similar underlying concepts. Moreover, for divergent validity, the Fornell & Larker criterion is used, which compares the square root of the AVE of each construct with the correlations between that construct and other constructs. The diagonal elements (in bold) of the Fornell & Larker criterion matrix are higher than the off-diagonal elements, indicating adequate divergent validity. In terms of reliability, Cronbach's alpha values range from 0.835 to 0.980, indicating high internal consistency reliability for all constructs. Composite reliability values also range from 0.850 to 0.966, further supporting the reliability of the constructs. Overall, the findings suggest that the measures used to assess the constructs demonstrate acceptable levels of convergent and divergent validity and reliability, indicating that they are suitable for assessing the respective skills in the context of task-based language needs.Table 1 Reliability and validity of different components of the scale.

Table 1Construct	Indicator	Validity assessment	Reliability assessment	
convergent validity	divergent validity	
FL	AVE	Fornell & Larker
Index	Cronbach's alpha	Rho-A	Composite
Reliability	
Reading skill	TBLN 1	0.88	0.83	0.91	0.90	0.91	0.93	
TBLN 2	0.93	
TBLN 3	0.85	
TBLN 4	0.88	
TBLN 5	0.90	
TBLN 6	0.93	
TBLN 7	0.87	
Writing skill	TBLN 1	0.83	0.75	0.86	0.91	0.93	0.93	
TBLN 2	0.70	
TBLN 3	0.84	
TBLN 4	0.86	
TBLN 5	0.90	
TBLN 6	0.86	
Speaking skill	TBLN 1	0.91	0.91	0.95	0.95	0.95	0.96	
TBLN 2	0.90	
TBLN 3	0.94	
TBLN 4	0.92	
TBLN 5	0.88	
Listening skill	TBLN 1	0.98	0.93	0.96	0.96	0.96	0.97	
TBLN 2	0.97	
Vocabulary and Language Use	TBLN 1	0.86	0.86	0.85	0.86	0.87	0.88	
TBLN 2	0.87	
Critical thinking	TBLN 1	0.86	0.85	0.84	0.90	0.91	0.90	
TBLN 2	0.84	
TBLN 3	0.86	
TBLN 4	0.88	
TBLN 5	0.90	
Collaboration and Interaction	TBLN 1	0.87	0.90	0.86	0.90	0.89	0.91	
TBLN 2	0.89	

4.10 Comparing postgraduate and teachers’ perceptions of academic TBLNs

Research question 3 addressed the postgraduate and teachers' perceptions of academic TBLNs. Results, including the ranking order of the academic TBLNs and the comparison between the two groups, are presented in the following sections.

4.11 Attitudes to reading TBLNs

As indicated in Table 2, T-tests were conducted to compare the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards various reading tasks. The difference between teachers and students' mean scores on "Summarizing philosophical arguments" was statistically significant (T = 4.235, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.4323), indicating that teachers (M = 3.9, SD = 0.82) had significantly higher attitudes towards this task compared to students (M = 3.60, SD = 0.53). Similarly, significant differences were observed in "Analyzing and critically evaluating philosophical arguments" (T = 12.18, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.246), "Conducting research on philosophical topics and synthesizing information" (T = 9.44, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.9637), "Identifying logical fallacies in philosophical arguments" (T = 6.911, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.7066), "Exploring the historical development of philosophical ideas and movements" (T = 10.49, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.073), and "Engaging with primary sources in philosophy" (T = 11.42, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.168). These results suggest that teachers consistently exhibited more positive attitudes towards these reading tasks than students. However, in the overall aggregate of reading tasks, no significant difference was found between teachers (M = 4.0886, SD = 0.7278) and students (M = 3.4771, SD = 0.60, T = 0.813, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.072).Table 2 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers and students’ attitudes to reading TBLNs.

Table 2Task	Teachers (M ± SD)	Students (M ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Reading philosophical texts …	3.8 (0.56)	3.75 (0.57)	0.862	>0.05	0.088	
Summarizing philosophical arguments	3.9 (0.82)	3.60 (0.53)	4.235	<0.001	0.43	
Analyzing and critically evaluating philosophical arguments	3.95 (0.59)	3.20 (0.61)	12.18	<0.001	1.24	
Conducting research on philosophical topics and synthesizing information	3.9 (0.60)	3.30 (0.64)	9.44	<0.001	0.96	
Identifying logical fallacies in philosophical arguments	4.20 (0.61)	3.76 (0.63)	6.911	<0.001	0.70	
Exploring the historical development of philosophical ideas and movements	3.95 (0.66)	3.25 (0.64)	10.49	<0.001	1.07	
Engaging with primary sources in philosophy	4.12 (0.46)	3.48 (0.62)	11.42	<0.001	1.16	
Total (Reading tasks)	4.0886 (0.7278)	3.4771 (0.60)	0.813	<0.001	1.07	

4.12 Attitudes to writing TBLNs

As indicated in Table 3, T-tests were conducted to compare the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards various reading tasks. For "Writing essays or papers on philosophical topics," there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores between teachers (M = 4.2, SD = 0.56) and students (M = 3.56, SD = 0.57, T = 11.03, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.128). This suggests that teachers held more positive attitudes towards this task than students. Similarly, significant differences were observed in "Developing arguments and counterarguments in philosophical writing" (T = 3.75, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.3841), "Translating philosophical texts from other languages" (T = 11.37, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.163), "Constructing logical and coherent arguments" (T = 10.86, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.107), "Formulating philosophical questions for further inquiry" (T = 10.21, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.044), and "Reflecting on personal philosophical beliefs and values" (T = 8.39, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.859). These findings suggest that teachers consistently exhibited more positive attitudes towards these writing tasks than students. In the aggregate of writing skills, a statistically significant difference was found between teachers (M = 4.08, SD = 0.605) and students (M = 3.49, SD = 0.601) (T = 9.53, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.689), indicating that teachers generally held more favourable attitudes towards writing skills than students.Table 3 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers and students’ attitudes to writing TBLNs.

Table 3Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Writing essays or papers on philosophical topics	4.2 ± 0.56	3.56 ± 0.57	11.03	<0.001	1.128	
Developing arguments and counterarguments in philosophical writing	4.11 ± 0.56	3.9 ± 0.53	3.75	<0.001	0.38	
Translating philosophical texts from other languages	3.95 ± 0.59	3.25 ± 0.61	11.37	<0.001	1.16	
Constructing logical and coherent arguments	3.98 ± 0.60	3.29 ± 0.64	10.86	<0.001	1.10	
Formulating philosophical questions for further inquiry	4.10 ± 0.61	3.45 ± 0.63	10.21	<0.001	1.04	
Reflecting on personal philosophical beliefs and values	4.12 ± 0.66	3.56 ± 0.64	8.39	<0.001	0.85	
Total (Writing skill)	4.08 ± 0.605	3.49 ± 0.601	9.53	<0.001	0.6	

4.13 Attitudes to reading TBLNs

As indicated in Table 4, T-tests were conducted to compare the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards various speaking tasks. The results indicate significant differences between the two groups across various speaking tasks. In "Engaging in philosophical debates and discussions," there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores between teachers (M = 3.95, SD = 0.56) and students (M = 3.36, SD = 0.57, T = 10.20, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.041). This suggests that teachers exhibited more positive attitudes towards engaging in philosophical debates and discussions than students. Similarly, significant differences were observed in "Presenting philosophical ideas orally in seminars or lectures" (T = 4.24, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.433), "Defending philosophical positions through persuasive speaking" (T = 3.31, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.337), and "Participating in philosophical reading groups or study sessions" (T = 4.24, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.433). In these tasks, teachers displayed more positive attitudes compared to students. However, no statistically significant difference was found between teachers and students in "Explaining philosophical concepts to others" (T = 1.30, p = 0.196, Cohen's d = 0.133). In the sum of speaking tasks, a statistically significant difference was observed between teachers (M = 3.984, SD = 0.6427) and students (M = 3.714, SD = 0.5974; T = 4.24, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.307), indicating that teachers generally held more positive attitudes towards speaking tasks than students.Table 4 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers and students’ attitudes to speaking TBLNs.

Table 4Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Cohen's d	
Engaging in philosophical debates and discussions	3.95 ± 0.56	3.36 ± 0.57	10.20	<0.001	1.04	
Presenting philosophical ideas orally in seminars or lectures	3.86 ± 0.82	3.56 ± 0.53	4.24	<0.001	0.43	
Explaining philosophical concepts to others	3.99 ± 0.59	3.91 ± 0.61	1.30	0.196	0.13	
Defending philosophical positions through persuasive speaking	4.10 ± 0.60	3.89 ± 0.64	3.31	<0.001	0.33	
Participating in philosophical reading groups or study sessions	4.12 ± 0.61	3.85 ± 0.63	4.24	<0.001	0.43	
Total (Speaking tasks)	3.98 ± 0.64	3.714 ± 0.59	4.24	<0.001	0.30	

4.14 Attitudes to listening TBLNs

As shown in Table 5, T-tests were conducted to compare the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards various reading tasks. In the task of "Understanding complex philosophical arguments during debates and discussions," there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores between teachers (M = 4.12, SD = 0.56) and students (M = 3.56, SD = 0.57, T = 9.67, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.987). This indicates that teachers held more positive attitudes towards understanding complex philosophical arguments during debates and discussions than students. Similarly, significant differences were found in "Following lectures or presentations on philosophical topics" (T = 8.47, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.867). In this task, teachers (M = 4.20, SD = 0.82) demonstrated more positive attitudes than students (M = 3.60, SD = 0.53). When considering the sum of comprehension tasks, including both understanding complex philosophical arguments and following lectures or presentations, a statistically significant difference was observed between teachers (M = 4.16, SD = 0.701) and students (M = 3.58, SD = 0.5504, T = 8.98, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.919). This suggests that overall, teachers held more favourable attitudes towards comprehension tasks than students.Table 5 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers and students’ attitudes to listening TBLNs.

Table 5
Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Understanding complex philosophical arguments during debates and discussions	4.12 ± 0.56	3.56 ± 0.57	9.67	<0.001	0.98	
Following lectures or presentations on philosophical topics	4.20 ± 0.82	3.60 ± 0.53	8.47	<0.001	0.86	
Total (Comprehension tasks)	4.16 ± 0.701	3.58 ± 0.55	8.98	<0.001	0.9	

4.15 Attitudes to TBLNs for using vocabulary

The results of the T-tests comparing the attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards tasks involving vocabulary are presented in Table 6. Significant differences were observed between the two groups across both tasks. In the task of "Understanding and using specialized philosophical vocabulary," there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores between teachers (M = 4.20, SD = 0.56) and students (M = 4.10, SD = 0.57, T = 9.67, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.987). This indicates that teachers held more positive attitudes towards understanding and using specialized philosophical vocabulary than students. Similarly, significant differences were found in "Adapting philosophical concepts to different cultural contexts (T = 8.47, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.867). In this task, teachers (M = 4.20, SD = 0.82) demonstrated more positive attitudes than students (M = 3.98, SD = 0.53). When considering the sum of tasks involving vocabulary usage, a statistically significant difference was observed between teachers (M = 4.16, SD = 0.701) and students (M = 3.58, SD = 0.5504) (T = 8.98, p < 0.001, Effect Size = 0.919). This suggests that overall, teachers held more favourable attitudes towards tasks requiring specialized philosophical vocabulary and adaptation of philosophical concepts to different cultural contexts than students.Table 6 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers and students’ attitudes to TBLNs for using vocabulary.

Table 6
Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Understanding and using specialized philosophical vocabulary.	4.20 ± 0.56	4.10 ± 0.57	9.67	<0.001	0.98	
Adapting philosophical concepts to different cultural contexts.	4.20 ± 0.82	3.98 ± 0.53	8.47	<0.001	0.86	
Total (Comprehension tasks)	4.16 ± 0.70	3.58 ± 0.5504	8.98	<0.001	0.91	

4.16 Attitudes to TBLNs for critical thinking

The attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards critical thinking tasks were compared using T-tests. As shown in Table 7, the results revealed significant differences between the two groups across all assessed tasks. Teachers exhibited notably more positive attitudes towards critically evaluating philosophical arguments (M = 4.20, SD = 0.56) compared to students (M = 3.35, SD = 0.57), with a large effect size (d = 0.987), t(190) = 9.67, p < 0.001. Similarly, in applying philosophical theories to real-world situations, teachers (M = 4.20, SD = 0.82) displayed more favourable attitudes than students (M = 3.52, SD = 0.53), yielding a substantial effect size (d = 0.867, T = 8.47, p < 0.001.Table 7 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers' and students' attitudes to TBLNs for critical thinking.

Table 7
Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Critically evaluating philosophical arguments.	4.20 ± 0.56	3.35 ± 0.57	9.67	<0.001	0.98	
Applying philosophical theories to real-world situations.	4.20 ± 0.82	3.52 ± 0.53	8.47	<0.001	0.86	
Critiquing philosophical texts or theories.	4.10 ± 0.46	3.60 ± 0.57	9.67	<0.001	0.98	
Evaluating the relevance and applicability of philosophical theories.	4.08 ± 0.72	3.50 ± 0.53	8.47	<0.001	0.86	
Total (Comprehension tasks)	4.16 ± 0.70	3.48 ± 0.5504	8.98	<0.001	0.91	

Furthermore, teachers showcased higher levels of enthusiasm in critiquing philosophical texts or theories (M = 4.10, SD = 0.46) compared to students (M = 3.60, SD = 0.57), accompanied by a large effect size (d = 0.987, T = 9.67, p < 0.001. Similarly, in evaluating the relevance and applicability of philosophical theories, teachers (M = 4.08, SD = 0.72) surpassed students (M = 3.50, SD = 0.53) with a substantial effect size (d = 0.867, T = 8.47, p < 0.001.

When considering the sum of tasks, including critically evaluating philosophical arguments, applying philosophical theories, critiquing texts or theories, and evaluating their relevance and applicability, teachers (M = 4.16, SD = 0.701) consistently held more positive attitudes compared to students (M = 3.48, SD = 0.5504), with a substantial effect size (d = 0.919, t = 8.98, p < 0.001.

4.17 Attitudes to TBLNs for collaboration and interpretation

The attitudes of philosophy teachers and students towards tasks involving collaboration and interpretation were compared using T-tests. The results are shown in Table 8. First, there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of philosophy teachers (M = 3.99, SD = 0.56) and students (M = 3.85, SD = 0.57) regarding their attitudes towards collaborating with peers on philosophical projects or group discussions (T = 1.23, p > 0.05). Similarly, there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of philosophy teachers (M = 3.85, SD = 0.82) and students (M = 3.70, SD = 0.53) regarding their attitudes towards comparing and contrasting different philosophical perspectives (t = 1.14, p > 0.05). About the sum of the tasks, including both collaborating with peers and comparing philosophical perspectives, there was still no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of philosophy teachers (M = 3.90, SD = 0.70) and students (M = 3.75, SD = 0.50, t 0.96, p > 0.05).Table 8 T-tests for comparing philosophy teachers' and students' attitudes to TBLNs for collaboration and interpretation.

Table 8
Task	Teachers (Mean ± SD)	Students (Mean ± SD)	T	P	Effect Size	
Collaborating with peers on philosophical projects or group discussions.	3.99 ± 0.56	3.85 ± 0.57	1.23	>0.05	0.08	
Comparing and contrasting different philosophical perspectives.	3.85 ± 0.82	3.70 ± 0.53	1.14	>0.05	0.09	
Total (Comprehension tasks)	3.90 ± 0.70	3.75 ± 0.50	0.96	>0.05	0.08	

5 Discussion

The investigation into task-based language needs (TBLNs) among philosophy students presents a multifaceted exploration encompassing various domains essential for effective philosophical inquiry. Through an analysis of seven main categories, namely reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, listening skills, vocabulary and language use, critical thinking, and collaboration and interaction, this study sheds light on the intricate dynamics inherent in language proficiency within the philosophical domain.

5.1 Importance of reading skill

One of the key findings of this study lies in the nuanced nature of reading skills among philosophy students. The emphasis on thorough comprehension, as underscored by Teacher 1's reference to Bertrand Russell, highlights the pivotal role of comprehension in engaging with philosophical texts. This aligns with existing literature emphasizing the importance of reading comprehension in philosophical inquiry. Additionally, the juxtaposition of contrasting perspectives, as exemplified by Student B's resonance with Sartre's existential observation, accentuates the complexity of philosophical reading, wherein theory intersects with lived experience [42].

5.2 Importance of writing skill

Similarly, exploring writing skills unveils a duality inherent in philosophical expression. Teacher C's emphasis on clarity and coherence echoes Wittgenstein's notion of linguistic precision, indicative of the perennial quest for clarity in philosophical discourse. Conversely, Student D's struggle articulating complex thoughts resonates with de Beauvoir's existential journey towards truth, portraying writing as a transformative medium for grappling with uncertainty [43].

The study elucidates the importance of effective articulation and critical engagement in oral communication. Teacher F's invocation of Plato underscores the significance of meaningful contribution to philosophical dialogue, resonating with scholarly discourse on the importance of oral proficiency in philosophical pedagogy [44]. Moreover, Student G's recognition of the challenge in articulating complex ideas reflects Aristotle's emphasis on intellectual humility, emphasizing the dialectical nature of philosophical communication [44].

5.3 Importance of listening skill

Furthermore, listening skills emerge as fundamental in philosophical inquiry, with Epictetus's aphorism highlighting the value of receptive engagement. This resonates with scholarly literature emphasizing the role of active listening in philosophical discourse, facilitating nuanced understanding and critical engagement [45]. Moreover, Confucius's warning underscores the ethical dimension of attentive listening, linking comprehension and moral courage in philosophical dialogue [45]. The study also delves into the significance of vocabulary and language use, emphasizing precision and adaptability. Teacher J's invocation of Wittgenstein underscores the epistemological implications of linguistic boundaries, echoing scholarly discourse on the relationship between language and philosophical understanding [45]. Furthermore, Student L's recognition of cultural nuances aligns with contemporary discussions on the importance of linguistic diversity in fostering cross-cultural philosophical dialogue [46].

5.4 Importance of critical thinking

Furthermore, critical thinking emerges as a cornerstone of philosophical inquiry, with Socrates's dictum emphasizing the imperative of self-reflection. This resonates with scholarly discourse, highlighting critical thinking as central to philosophical pedagogy, enabling students to interrogate assumptions and cultivate intellectual autonomy [47]. Additionally, Descartes's cogito underscores the transformative potential of critical inquiry, accentuating its role in shaping personal beliefs and understanding of reality [47]. Finally, the study explores collaboration and interaction, recognizing the synergistic potential of collective inquiry. Teacher K's invocation of Aristotle highlights the holistic nature of philosophical dialogue, emphasizing the value of diverse perspectives in enriching philosophical discourse [47]. Similarly, Student J's acknowledgement of diverse viewpoints reflects Nietzsche's perspectivism, underscoring the plurality inherent in philosophical inquiry and the necessity of openness to alternative perspectives [48].

The findings from comparing attitudes between philosophy teachers and students towards various tasks within the discipline shed light on the pedagogical dynamics in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) education [16]. Basturkmen emphasizes the significance of developing courses tailored to the specific needs of learners [1]. This approach is echoed in the findings indicating disparities in attitudes towards reading, writing, speaking, comprehension, vocabulary usage, critical thinking, and collaboration [17]. These disparities underscore the importance of thorough needs analyses to inform syllabus design [[2], [3], [4]].

The study revealed that attitudes towards reading tasks reflect the nuanced nature of comprehension needs among philosophy teachers and students, echoing Atai and Nazari's call for triangulated approaches to understanding reading comprehension needs [8]. Similarly, disparities in attitudes towards writing tasks underscore the importance of aligning ESP curriculum planning with the perceived needs and imagined futures of learners [10].

5.5 Task-based needs for speaking and collaboration

In speaking tasks, the findings resonate with Long's emphasis on identifying target tasks and underscore the necessity for aligning task-based language teaching (TBLT) with the specific needs of learners, particularly in fostering oral communication skills [12,13]. Moreover, the disparities in attitudes towards critical thinking tasks underscore the need for ESP educators to integrate psycholinguistic underpinnings, as proposed by Long, to foster instructed second language acquisition effectively [14,15].

The collaboration and interpretation tasks findings highlight the complex interplay between educational, political, and sociocultural factors in ESP education, as explored by Tavakoli and Tavakol [18]. The absence of significant differences in attitudes towards collaboration tasks suggests a potential avenue for further exploration in addressing the diverse needs of philosophy students and teachers in collaborative learning contexts, resonating with Lambert's task-based needs analysis framework [19].

5.6 Comparisons between teachers' and students' attitudes

The data reveals several disparities and similarities between philosophy teachers and students regarding their attitudes towards task-based language needs (TBLNs). Significant differences were consistently observed across different categories of TBLNs, indicating that teachers generally exhibited more positive attitudes towards these tasks than students. In writing TBLNs, significant differences were noted in tasks such as writing essays on philosophical topics, developing arguments, translating philosophical texts, constructing coherent arguments, formulating philosophical questions, and reflecting on personal beliefs. These findings suggest that teachers perceive these writing tasks more favourably than students do. Similarly, in speaking TBLNs, significant differences were found in engaging in debates, presenting ideas orally, defending positions persuasively, and participating in reading groups, with teachers consistently displaying more positive attitudes than students. However, no significant difference was observed in explaining philosophical concepts.

In listening to TBLNs, teachers showed more positive attitudes towards tasks involving understanding complex arguments and following lectures or presentations. Likewise, in tasks related to vocabulary usage, teachers held more positive attitudes towards understanding specialized philosophical vocabulary and adapting concepts to different cultural contexts than students. Additionally, in tasks requiring critical thinking, teachers exhibited notably more positive attitudes across all assessed areas, such as critically evaluating arguments, applying theories to real-world situations, critiquing texts or theories, and evaluating their relevance and applicability. However, in tasks involving collaboration and interpretation, no significant differences were found between the attitudes of teachers and students. These findings highlight the discrepancies in attitudes between teachers and students across various TBLNs, underscoring the importance of understanding and addressing these differences to enhance language learning outcomes in philosophical education. The differences can be justified by teachers' deeper immersion in philosophical discourse, their professional training in the field, and their broader understanding of the significance of language skills in philosophical inquiry, which may lead to more positive attitudes towards language tasks compared to students, who may perceive language learning as a means to an end rather than an intrinsic aspect of philosophical inquiry. Overall, the disparities in attitudes towards various tasks within the discipline of philosophy underscore the multifaceted nature of ESP education, necessitating a nuanced understanding of learners' needs and aspirations. By leveraging insights from needs analyses and triangulated evaluation studies, ESP educators can tailor instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners better, fostering meaningful engagement and enhancing learning outcomes in specialized contexts [20,21].

6 Conclusions and implications

The investigation into task-based language needs (TBLNs) among philosophy students provides a comprehensive understanding of the diverse skills required for effective philosophical inquiry. By analyzing seven main categories—reading, writing, speaking, listening, vocabulary usage, critical thinking, and collaboration—this study reveals the intricate dynamics inherent in language proficiency within the philosophical domain. The nuanced nature of reading skills highlights the pivotal role of comprehension in engaging with philosophical texts. In contrast, the exploration of writing skills underscores the duality of philosophical expression, from linguistic precision to existential grappling with uncertainty. Furthermore, the study elucidates the importance of oral communication, critical thinking, and receptive listening in fostering meaningful philosophical dialogue, showcasing the multifaceted nature of language proficiency in philosophical inquiry.

The findings from this study have significant implications for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) education, emphasizing the importance of tailored instruction aligned with learners' specific needs and aspirations. Basturkmen's emphasis on developing courses tailored to learners' needs resonates with the disparities in attitudes towards various tasks within philosophy education. These disparities underscore the necessity of conducting thorough needs analyses to inform syllabus design, ensuring that ESP curriculum planning aligns with learners' perceived needs and imagined futures. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of integrating psycholinguistic underpinnings and task-based language teaching (TBLT) principles to effectively foster instructed second language acquisition. By leveraging insights from needs analyses and triangulated evaluation studies, ESP educators can enhance their instructional practices, promoting meaningful engagement and improving learning outcomes in specialized contexts, thereby contributing to advancing philosophical inquiry and academic discourse.

While the sample size in this study was adequate, it is crucial to acknowledge that the participants were drawn from a single country, which might restrict the generalizability of the findings to other cultural or linguistic contexts. Moreover, the study did not compare students across different education levels within the same discipline, limiting insights into how language needs vary across various academic progression stages. Future investigations could address these limitations by conducting cross-cultural studies involving participants from diverse linguistic backgrounds and educational settings. Additionally, comparing students at different educational levels within the same discipline could offer valuable insights into the developmental trajectory of language proficiency and task-based needs in specialized academic environments.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The study involved undergraduate students and teachers who volunteered to participate and signed informed consent forms, which were integrated into the scale utilized for data collection. Participants were fully informed about the study's purpose and were not required to provide their names to maintain anonymity. Due to the lack of potential positive or negative impacts on their educational attainment or status as students, ethical approval by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) or university ethical committee was deemed unnecessary. Furthermore, as the study did not pose any risks to humans, animals, or the environment, it fell outside the scope of IRB review, which typically focuses on studies with potential adverse effects.

Data availability

The data would be available upon request from the corresponding author.

Funding

Not applicable.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Lingxi Li: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:Multimedia component 1

Multimedia component 1

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank all the participants in the study.

Appendix A Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35983.
==== Refs
References

1 Basturkmen H. Developing Courses in English for Specific Purposes 2010 Palgrave Macmillan Basingstoke, UK
2 Basturkmen H.L. Needs analysis and syllabus design for LSP? Chapelle C.A. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics 2013 Wiley-Blackwell West Sussex 4209 4217
3 Serafini E.J. Lake J.B. Long M.H. Needs analysis for specialized learner populations: essential methodological improvements Engl. Specif. Purp. 40 2015 11 26
4 Alibakhshi G. Assessing ESP. Construction and Validation Based on a New Model 2008 Tarbiat Modares University Tehran, Iran [Ph.D. dissertation]
5 Atai M.R. EAP curriculum planning in Iran: an incoherent educational experience Special Issue of the Journal of Faculty of Letters and Humanities 9 3 2002 17 34
6 Atai M.R. Asadi S.A. Assessing academic and professional English language needs of Iranian railway engineering students: a triangulated evaluation study ESP Across Cultures 10 2013 34 55
7 Atai M.R. Dashtestani R. Iranian EAP stakeholders' attitudes towards using the Internet in EAP courses for civil engineering students: promises and challenges Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 26 1 2013 21 38
8 Atai M.R. Nazari O. Exploring reading comprehension needs of Iranian EAP students of health information management (HIM): a triangulated approach System 39 1 2011 30 43
9 Atai M.R. Shoja L. A triangulated study of academic language needs of Iranian computer engineering students: are the courses on track? RELC J. 42 3 2011 305 323
10 Long M.H. Needs analysis Chapelle C. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics 2013 Wiley-Blackwell Oxford
11 Long M.H. Identifying language needs for TBLT in the tourist industry Bosch G. Teaching Foreign Languages for Tourism: Research and Practice 2013 Peter Lang Berlin 21 44
12 Long M.H. Identifying target tasks Long M.H. Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching 2015 Wiley-Blackwell Oxford 117 168
13 Long M.H. Psycholinguistic underpinnings: a cognitive-interactionist theory of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) Long M.H. Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching 2015 Wiley-Blackwell Oxford 30 62
14 Altschuld J.W. Witkin B.R. Planning and Conducting Needs Assessments: A Practical Guide 1995 Sage Publications California
15 Rossi P.H. Lipsey M.W. Freeman H.E. Evaluation: A Systematic Approach 2004 Sage Publications
16 Belcher D. English for specific purposes: teaching to perceived needs and imagined futures in worlds of work, study, and everyday life Tesol Q. 40 2006 133 153
17 Hyland K. English for Academic Purposes 2006 Routledge London
18 Tavakoli M. Tavakol M. Problematizing EAP education in Iran: a critical ethnographic study of educational, political, and sociocultural roots J. Engl. Acad. Purp. 31 2018 28 43
19 Whitehead G.E. Ramos I.D.D. Coates A. Developing effective teacher talk: a critical self-examination of an ESP course designed for Korean in-service teachers Journal of Asia TEFL 16 1 2019 178
20 Lambert C. A task-based needs analysis: putting principles into practice Lang. Teach. Res. 14 1 2010 99 112
21 Mao Z. The application of task-based language teaching to English reading classroom Theor. Pract. Lang. Stud. 2 11 2012 10.4304/tpls.2.11.2430-2438
22 Nezakatgoo B. Alibakhshi G. Assessing task-based English language needs of medical students: are they aligned with pedagogical tasks in EMS courses? Int. J. Appl. Ling. Stud. 6 2 2014 81 102
23 Pholsward R. The English language needs of Thai computing professionals RELC J. 24 1 1993 86 108
24 Pranckeviciote V. Zajankauskaite Z. Adjusting an ESP course to students' needs in tertiary education: a case study Stud. about Lang. 21 2012 115 123
25 Popescu C. Maritime English a necessity for nowadays apprentices. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Maritime and Naval Science and Engineering. Available at: http://www.wseas.us/e-library/conferences/2010/Constantza/MN/MN-14.pdf. Accessed July 24, 2024.
26 Marjanovikj-Apostolovski M. Developing teaching materials for ESP courses: the last option many ESP teachers resort to SEEU Rev. 14 1 2019 160 177
27 Moattarian A.M. Tahririan M.H. Language needs of graduate students and ESP courses: the case of tourism management in Iran Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics 5 2 2014 4 22
28 Malicka A. Gilabert Guerrero R. Norris J.M. From needs analysis to task design: insights from an English for specific purposes context Lang. Teach. Res. 23 1 2019 78 106
29 Jiajing G. Designing an ESP course for Chinese university students of business Asian ESP J. 3 1 2007 97 106
30 Fazio A, Isidori E, Bartoll Ó. Task-based approach in English for specific purposes (ESP) teaching: A Case Study in the Field of Sports Sciences. Available at SSRN 3058663. Accessed July 24, 2024.
31 Alibakhshi G. Nezakatgoo B. Bahremand A. Assessing the task-based language needs for students of marine engineering International Journal of Training Research 20 1 2022 58 72
32 Alibakhshi G. Javaheri R. Labbafi A. Academic and real-life task-based language needs of marine engineering students: interface between students' and subject teachers' perspectives Heliyon 7 2 2021 e05534
33 Dousti M. Alibakhshi G. Assessment task–based language needs of sport management students (Case study: university of Mazandaran) New Approaches in Exercise Physiology 1 2 2019 45 62
34 Bosher S. Smalkoski K. From needs analysis to curriculum development: designing a course in health-care communication for the immigrant students in the USA Engl. Specif. Purp. 21 2002 59 79
35 Alsamadian H.A. Needs analysis in ESP context: Saudi engineering students as a case study Adv. Lang. Lit. Stud. 8 6 2017 58 67
36 Bouabdallah F.H. A Course Design in ESP: the Case of Master's Students in the Department of Biology, University of Tlemcen [Master's Thesis] 2015 University of Tlemcen
37 Bedoya P.A. Valencia L.M. Montoya J.C. Students' needs analysis in an EFL program for university professors HOW 22 2 2015 11 36
38 Kazan S.G. Mede E. The perceptions of ESP students' target needs: a case study Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 191 2015 2526 2530
39 Clement A. Murugavel T. English for employability: a case study of the English language training needs analysis for engineering students in India Engl. Lang. Teach. 8 2 2015 116 125
40 Buriro G.S. Soomro A.F. Assessing the academic literacy and learning needs of undergraduate engineering students at Quaid-e-Awam University of engineering, science, and technology (QUEST) Pakistan Journal of Research and Reflections in Education 7 2 2013 83 96
41 Cohen L. Manion L. Morrison K. Research design and planning Research Methods in Education 2017 Routledge 173 201
42 Renaudie P.J. Reynolds J. Peculiar access: Sartre, self-knowledge, and the question of the irreducibility of the first-person perspective Sartre and Analytic Philosophy 2023 Routledge 89 108
43 Schoonheim L. Situating Simone de Beauvoir in contemporary political theory Beauvoir and Politics 2023 Routledge 13 28
44 Watson J.A. Interpreting across the Abyss: A Hermeneutic Exploration of Initial Literacy Development by High School English Language Learners with Limited Formal Schooling [dissertation] 2010 University of Minnesota
45 Bartsch S. Bartscherer T. Erotikon: Essays on Eros, Ancient and Modern 2006 University of Chicago Press
46 Molinari J. What Makes Writing Academic: Rethinking Theory for Practice 2022 Bloomsbury Academic
47 FitzPatrick J.J. Learning about 21st Century Skills and Progressive Education through Practitioner Research 2021
48 Leng L. The role of philosophical inquiry in helping students engage in learning Front. Psychol. 11 2020 519240
