
==== Front
BMC Cancer
BMC Cancer
BMC Cancer
1471-2407
BioMed Central London

39237882
12819
10.1186/s12885-024-12819-0
Research
The preoperative scoring system combining neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio and CA19-9 predicts the long-term prognosis of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma patients undergoing curative liver resection
Bai Shilei 1
Shi Xiaodong 1
Dai Yizhe 2
Wang Huifeng 3
Xia Yong 2
Liu Jian jianliu926@163.com

4
Wang Kui wangkuiykl@163.com

1
1 https://ror.org/043sbvg03 grid.414375.0 0000 0004 7588 8796 Department of Hepatic Surgery II, the Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University (Naval Medical University), No. 225, Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, 200438 People’s Republic of China
2 https://ror.org/043sbvg03 grid.414375.0 0000 0004 7588 8796 Department of Hepatic Surgery IV, the Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University (Naval Medical University), Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
3 grid.256922.8 0000 0000 9139 560X Department of Hepatic Surgery, the Fifth Clinical Medical College of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
4 https://ror.org/043sbvg03 grid.414375.0 0000 0004 7588 8796 Department of Biliary Surgery II, the Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University (Naval Medical University), Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
5 9 2024
5 9 2024
2024
24 110620 6 2024
16 8 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Background

This study aims to investigate preoperative prognostic factors available for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) patients and propose a new preoperative prognostic scoring system for ICC that combines CA19-9 and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR).

Methods

In this retrospective analysis, 1728 patients diagnosed with ICC and undergoing curative liver resections were studied. This study employed univariate and multivariate Cox regression to find factors affecting recurrence and overall survival (OS), and furthermore assessed how preoperative models influenced tumor traits and postoperative recurrence.

Results

The results of the multivariate Cox regression analysis indicated that two preoperative variables, NLR and Ca19-9, were independent risk factors affecting postoperative recurrence and OS in ICC patients. Based on this data, assigning a score of 0 (NLR ≤ 2.4 and Ca19-9 ≤ 37U/ml) or 1 (NLR > 2.4 and Ca19-9 > 37U/ml) to these two factors, a preoperative prognostic score was derived. According to the scoring model, patients were divided into three groups: 0 points (low-risk group), 1 point (intermediate-risk group), and 2 points (high-risk group). The 5-year recurrence and OS rates for the three groups were 56.6%, 68.2%, 77.8%, and 56.8%, 40.6%, 27.6%, respectively, with all P values < 0.001. Furthermore, high-risk group patients were more prone to early recurrence (early recurrence rates for high-, intermediate-, and low-risk groups were 56.8%, 51.5%, and 37.1%, respectively, P < 0.001) and extrahepatic metastasis (extrahepatic metastasis rates for high-, intermediate-, and low-risk groups were 31.7%, 26.4%, and 15.4%, respectively, P < 0.001). In terms of tumor characteristics, high-risk group patients had larger tumor diameters and were more likely to experience microvascular invasion, lymph node metastasis, and perineural invasion.

Conclusions

The predictive capacity of postoperative recurrence and OS rates in ICC patients is effectively captured by the preoperative scoring system incorporating NLR and CA19-9 levels.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-024-12819-0.

Keywords

Neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio
Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma
Prognosis
Liver resection
Scoring system
issue-copyright-statement© BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2024
==== Body
pmcIntroduction

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC), making up 10%-20% of primary liver tumors, holds the second position after hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) [1]. Characterized by a high degree of malignancy, ICC presents a grim prognosis, with its incidence and associated mortality rising globally each year. While surgical resection stands as the primary curative approach for ICC, the 5-year survival rate post-surgery remains modest, ranging from 22 to 40% [2, 3]. Therefore, establishing a preoperative scoring system to select suitable patients for surgical treatment to achieve maximum surgical benefits is crucial. Currently, some studies have analyzed factors affecting ICC prognosis, such as microvascular invasion, lymph node metastasis, tumor differentiation, etc [4–6]. However, most of these variables are postoperative variables and are not easily obtainable preoperatively, greatly compromising their guidance for surgical patient selection. Although there are preoperative prediction systems to guide surgical patient selection, these studies have included fewer patients and have not mentioned their impact on recurrence.

Tumors induce systemic inflammatory cytokines and mediators that can promote angiogenesis, DNA damage, and inhibit apoptosis of cancer cells, which are associated with poor prognosis in different cancers [7–9]. Before the tumor is diagnosed and treatment begins, the inflammatory response can be easily detected through peripheral blood tests. Different peripheral blood parameters, including neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), derived NLR, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, and monocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio, have surfaced as markers of systemic inflammation. These parameters have demonstrated their predictive value in assessing the prognosis of diverse malignant tumors [10–15]. Although some studies have already linked elevated NLR with poorer prognosis in patients with ICC and HCC, few studies have discussed its correlation with the risk of postoperative recurrence in ICC patients following hepatectomy [16–18].

Several studies have shown that an increased preoperative NLR adversely affects the prognosis in patients with ICC. However, currently, there is still no research that incorporates preoperative NLR, which is relatively easy to obtain, into a scoring system for predicting long-term prognosis in ICC. In this study, we analyzed the independent risk factors affecting the prognosis of ICC and used this as the basis to establish a preoperative predictive model for long-term prognosis.

Methods

Patients selection

Consecutive patients who underwent curative intent liver resection for histologically confirmed ICC between January 2012 and December 2018 at the Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital (Shanghai) had their data prospectively collected and subsequently reviewed in a retrospective manner. Approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committees of the hospital, and each patient provided informed consent for the use of their data in research. Inclusion criteria: (i)Patients underwent radical hepatectomy. (ii) Postoperative pathology confirmed ICC. (iii) No history of prior anticancer treatment or other malignancies. (iv) All participants must be aged 18 years or older, and their Performance Status (PS) should be ≤ 2 based on the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance scale. (v) Comprehensive clinical and laboratory data, treatment modalities, outcomes, and follow-up data are required. Exclusion criteria were as follows: (i) patients with recurrent ICC; (ii) patients with combined HCC-cholangiocarcinoma; (iii) patients with microscopic positive margins; (iv)patients with perioperative death; (v) Participants with a history of prior anticancer therapy or other malignancies are excluded;. (vi) patients with clinical evidence of infection and autoimmune disease before operation; (vii) Participants with incomplete clinicopathological data or those lost to follow-up within 90 days after resection are excluded.

The following clinicopathological variables were reviewed for which included age, sex, BMI, HBV antigen, preoperative blood tests of liver function, prothrombin time (PT), α-fetoprotein (AFP), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and carbohydrate antigen 19–9 (CA19-9). The tumor pathological data included the presence of multiple tumors or satellites, maximum tumor size, microvascular invasion (MVI), lymph node metastasis, perineural invasion. Cirrhosis was confirmed by histopathological examination. The operative variables included intraoperative blood transfusion, and type of liver resection. Major hepatectomy was characterized by the resection of 3 or more Couinaud segments, whereas minor hepatectomy involved the resection of 2 or fewer segments [19]. Regional lymph nodes were dissected for intraoperatively or preoperatively diagnosed ICC, as previously reported [20]. An R0 resection was defined as the complete removal of macroscopic nodules and the absence of microscopic disease at the surgical margin [21].

Postoperative follow-up

Patients underwent follow-up appointments every 2 months during the initial 6 months, and subsequently every 6 months following liver resection. The follow-ups included assessments of peripheral blood for tumor markers like AFP, ultrasonography, and enhanced CT or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the abdomen.. The study endpoints included overall survival (OS) and time to recurrence (TTR). OS was calculated from the date of liver resection to either the date of death or the date of the last follow-up. TTR was calculated from the date of liver resection to the date of the first recurrence of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma or the date of the last follow-up. and the patterns of recurrence which included early or late recurrence (≤ or > 24 months post-treatment), type of recurrence (intra- and extrahepatic recurrences) [22].

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using R software, version 4.0.0 (http://www.r-project.org). Continuous variables with a normal distribution were reported as median (IQR: interquartile ranges). Categorical variables were expressed as number (n) and proportion (%). The two-tailed Student’s t-test was utilized to compare continuous variables when applicable; otherwise, the Mann–Whitney U test was employed. Categorical variables were compared using either the chi-square test or Fisher’s exact test, as deemed appropriate. The optimal cut-off for NLR to predict postoperative prognosis was determined using a time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The calculation of OS and TTR was performed using the Kaplan–Meier method, with the log-rank test employed for comparison. Univariate and multivariable Cox regression analyses were carried out to identify independent risk factors for both OS and TTR. Variables with a significance level of P < 0.05 in the univariable analysis were incorporated into the multivariable Cox regression model using forward stepwise variable selection. P-values were two-sided with values < 0.05 considered significant.

Results

Baseline characteristics and operative variables

Throughout the study duration, 2228 consecutive patients diagnosed with ICC underwent resection with curative intent. A total of 1728 (77.5%) ICC patients who satisfied the inclusion criteria were selected for further analysis (Fig. 1). Baseline characteristics was shown in Table 1. In the included 1728 ICC patients, there were 551 patients (31.9%) aged over 60, and 1154 patients (66.8%) were male. The optimal threshold for NLR predicting prognosis was established at 2.4 through the use of time-dependent ROC curves. Among them, 942 patients (54.1%) had NLR > 2.4, and 921 patients (53.3%) had CA19-9 > 37U/ml. There were 990 patients (57.3%) with tumor diameter > 5cm, 131 patients (7.6%) with multifocal tumors, 292 patients (16.9%) with lymph node metastasis, and 84 patients (4.9%) with perineural invasion. The median (range) follow-up time was 48.6 (1–109) months.Fig. 1 Flow Chart of patient’s inclusion

Table 1 Baseline characteristics of patients undergoing curative surgery for ICC

Variable	Number (%)/median (IQR)	
Age, years, > 60	551(31.9%)	
Gender, Male	1154(66.8%)	
BMI, kg/m2	23.4(21.2–26.1)	
HBsAg, positive	232(13.4%)	
NLR, > 2.4	942(54.1%)	
TBIL, µmol/L	423(24.5%)	
ALB, g/L > 35	1630(94.3%)	
ALT, U/L > 44	423(24.5%)	
AST, U/L > 40	391(22.6%)	
GGT, U/L > 64	986(57.1%)	
PT, seconds > 13	160(9.3%)	
PLT, × 109/L > 100	1577(91.3%)	
CA19-9, U/ml, > 37	921(53.3%)	
CEA, ng/L, > 5	456(26.4%)	
AFP, ng/mL, > 20	297(17.2%)	
Type of hepatectomy, Major	560(32.4%)	
Transfusion, yes	306(17.7%)	
Tumor diameter, cm > 5	990(57.3%)	
Tumor number, Multiple	131(7.6%)	
Microvascular invasion, Presence	223(12.9%)	
Lymph node metastasis, yes	292(16.9%)	
Lymph node dissection, yes	590(34.1%)	
Perineural invasion, yes	84(4.9%)	
Cirrhosis, yes	432(25%)	
Abbreviations: ICC intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, BMI Body Mass Index, TBIL total bilirubin, ALB albumin, ALT alanine transaminase, AST aspartate aminotransferase, GGT gamma-glutamyl transferase, PT Prothrombin time, PLT platelet, NLR neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, CA19-9 carbohydrate antigen 19–9, CEA carcinoembryonic antigen, AFP α-fetoprotein

Preoperative NLR and CA19-9 were independent prognostic factor

Supplemental Table 1 displays the statistically significant factors in TTR and OS as identified by univariate analyses. We found that GGT > 64u/L, NLR > 2.4, CA19-9 > 37 U/ml, CEA > 5ng/L, AFP > 20ng/ml, tumor diameter > 5cm, multiple tumors, presence of MVI and lymph node metastasis were identified as factors significantly associated with TTR, and age > 60 year, HBsAg positive, ALB ≤ 35g/L, GGT > 64U/L, NLR > 2.4, CA19-9 > 37U/ml, CEA > 5ng/L, transfusion, tumor diameter > 5cm, presence of MVI and lymph node metastasis were identified as factors significantly associated with OS.

Multivariate analyses identified CA19-9 > 37U/ml, NLR > 2.4, tumor diameter > 5cm, presence of MVI and lymph node metastasis as independent predictors of TTR and OS (Table 2).Table 2 Multivariable cox regression analysis of TTR and OS in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma patients

Variable	Multivariable Analysis (TTR)	Multivariable Analysis (OS)	
HR	95%CI	P	HR	95%CI	P	
CA19-9, U/ml

  > 37 vs. ≤ 37

	1.31	1.15–1.50	 < 0.001	1.51	1.30–1.77	 < 0.001	
NLR

  > 2.4 vs. ≤ 2.4

	1.18	1.03–1.34	0.017	1.33	1.14–1.56	 < 0.001	
Tumor diameter, cm

  > 5 vs. ≤ 5

	1.42	1.24–1.63	 < 0.001	1.42	1.21–1.66	 < 0.001	
MVI

 Yes vs. No

	1.47	1.24–1.75	 < 0.001	1.42	1.17–1.72	 < 0.001	
Lymph node metastasis

 Yes vs. No

	1.19	1.01–1.41	0.043	1.22	1.01–1.48	0.041	
Abbreviations: TTR time to recurrence, OS overall survival, CA199 carbohydrate antigen 19–9, NLR neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio, MVI Microvascular Invasion

Preoperative prognostic score

The results showed that ICC patients with NLR ≤ 2.4 compared to those with NLR > 2.4 had 1-, 3-, and 5-year recurrence rates and OS rates of 39.5%, 58.5%, 63.2% vs. 51.0%, 66.0%, 72.2%, and 82.1%, 57.9%, 49.5% vs. 70.0%, 44.4%, 33.0%, respectively, all with statistical differences (all P values < 0.001) (Fig. 2A and B). In ICC patients, those with CA19-9 levels ≤ 37 U/ml, when compared to those with CA19-9 levels > 37 U/ml, exhibited 1-, 3-, and 5-year recurrence rates and OS rates of 38.7%, 56.9%, 60.9% versus 52.0%, 67.9%, 74.9%, and 83.2%, 60.8%, 48.5% versus 68.7%, 41.0%, 33.2%, respectively. All these differences were statistically significant (all P values < 0.001) (Fig. 2C and D).Fig. 2 Recurrence and overall survival of patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma undergoing curative liver resection stratified by NLR (A, B) and CA19-9 (C, D) levels. NLR, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio; CA19-9, carbohydrate antigen 19–9

Based on the outcomes of the multivariate Cox regression analysis, a predictive model was formulated by integrating preoperative indicators CA19-9 and NLR. Assigning 0 points for CA19-9 ≤ 37 U/ml or NLR ≤ 2.4, and 1 point for CA19-9 > 37 U/ml or NLR > 2.4. Patients were stratified into low risk (0 points), intermediate risk (1 point), and high risk (2 points). The 1-, 3-, and 5-year recurrence rates for low-risk, intermediate-risk, and high-risk groups were 31.1%, 52.7%, 56.6% vs. 48.0%, 63.1%, 68.2% vs. 54.0%, 69.8%, and 77.8% (p < 0.001). The 1-, 3-, and 5-year OS rates were 90.7%, 67.8%, 56.8% vs. 73.9%, 50.2%, and 40.6% vs. 66.2%, 37.2%, 27.6% (p < 0.001) (Fig. 3A and B) The results indicate that the grouping can effectively predict the risk of postoperative recurrence and death in ICC patients undergoing curative resection.Fig. 3 Association of preoperative scoring system with recurrence (A) and overall survival (B) of patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma undergoing curative liver resection

Preoperative prognostic score association with recurrence patterns and tumors characteristics

Throughout the follow-up period, the occurrences of recurrence in the low-risk, medium-risk, and high-risk groups were 197 (47.5%), 440 (57.5%), and 337 (61.3%), respectively. The percentage of patients experiencing recurrence in the high-risk group was notably higher than that in the low-risk and medium-risk groups (P < 0.001). Early recurrence patients in the three groups were 154 (37.1%), 394 (51.5%), and 312 (56.8%), respectively, showing significant differences (P < 0.001). The number of extrahepatic metastasis in the low-risk, medium-risk, and high-risk groups were 64 (15.4%), 202 (26.4%), and 174 (31.7%), respectively. The research results indicate that with the increase in model scores, patients are more likely to experience extrahepatic metastasis (Table 3). We noted a significant positive correlation between a higher preoperative prognostic score and the following factors: tumor diameter > 5cm (p < 0.001), presence of MVI (p < 0.001), lymph node metastasis (p < 0.001), and perineural invasion (p = 0.046) (Table 4). Consequently, an elevated preoperative prognostic score could suggest an advanced stage of ICC, potentially elucidating the prognostic significance of this preoperative scoring system.Table 3 Patterns of recurrence between the low, middle and high-risk groups

Variable	n(%)	P	
Low Risk (n = 414)	Middle Risk (n = 765)	High Risk (n = 549)	
No. of recurrent cases	197 (47.5)	440 (57.5)	337 (61.3)	 < 0.001	
Time to recurrence, monthsa	
  ≤ 24	154 (37.1)	394 (51.5)	312 (56.8)	 < 0.001	
  > 24	43 (10.4)	46 (6.0)	25 (4.5)	0.001	
Type of recurrence	
 Intrahepatic only	133 (32.1)	238 (31.1)	163 (29.6)	0.711	
 Extrahepaticb	64 (15.4)	202 (26.4)	174 (31.7)	 < 0.001	
athe first recurrence between the low, middle and high risk groups were analyzed. Recurrence developed within 24 months post-treatment was defined as early recurrence, otherwise as late recurrence

bcalculated in patients with extrahepatic only and intra- plus extrahepatic recurrences

Table 4 The tumor features between the low, middle and high-risk groups for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

Variable	Number (percent)	P value	
Low Risk (n = 414)	Middle Risk (n = 765)	High Risk (n = 549)	
Tumor diameter, cm > 5	152 (36.7)	437 (57.1)	401 (73.0)	 < 0.001	
Tumor number, Multiple	26 (6.8)	53 (6.9)	52 (9.4)	0.118	
Microvascular invasion, Presence	45 (10.9)	102 (13.3)	100 (18.2)	0.003	
Lymph node metastasis, yes	42 (10.1)	121 (15.8)	145 (26.4)	 < 0.001	
Perineural invasion, yes	12 (2.9)	37 (4.8)	35 (6.3)	0.046	

Discussion

ICC is a progressively prevalent and aggressive malignancy globally. Surgical resection remains the only curative approach for ICC [3]. Despite advancements in surgical techniques and perioperative care, the prognosis for patients with ICC remains grim [23]. In an endeavor to enhance patient outcomes, this study has devised a risk stratification tool. Utilizing preoperative indicators such as NLR and CA19-9, the prognostic model can identify patients who stand to benefit the most from resection. This model provides a convenient and effective means to guide clinical decisions for surgeons.

The predictive model based on NLR and CA19-9 demonstrates good predictive capabilities. According to the results of multifactor Cox regression analysis, preoperative indicators, NLR > 2.4 and CA19-9 > 37 U/ml are identified as independent risk factors influencing postoperative recurrence and OS in patients with ICC. With this classification, patients are stratified into low risk (0 points), moderate risk (1 point), and high risk (2 points) groups. The higher the risk, the more likely ICC patients are to experience recurrence, and the worse their overall postoperative survival. The 5-year recurrence and OS rates for the low-risk, moderate-risk, and high-risk groups are 56.6% vs. 68.2% vs. 77.8% and 56.8% vs. 40.6% vs. 27.6%, respectively. This model exhibits good discriminatory ability for the long-term prognosis of ICC patients after surgery. Moreover, NLR and CA19-9 indicators are clinically accessible and user-friendly.

The correlation between the NLR included in the model and OS has a biological basis [24, 25]. Neutrophilic granulocytes are the most common type of white blood cells and play a crucial role in the innate immune system [26, 27]. In the presence of malignancy, the number of neutrophils is upregulated, and neutrophil-mediated inflammation plays a significant role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression [28]. Although the impact of neutrophils is multifaceted and can either enhance or slow tumor growth, most published clinical studies support the notion that neutrophils promote cancer progression [29, 30]. Moreover, an increased number of neutrophils may inhibit the adaptive immune response, reducing the effectiveness of activated lymphocytes. As an indicator of this phenomenon, the NLR may be linked to unfavorable outcomes in various solid tumors. [31, 32] A high NLR may indicate intensified inflammatory reactions, compromised immune function, potentially leading to tumor spread and recurrence [7, 18, 24]. Our results are highly consistent with previous studies, confirming that a high NLR promotes postoperative recurrence and reduces OS in ICC patients, further substantiating the robust prognostic value of NLR in human malignancies.

CA19-9 stands out as the most frequently utilized prognostic tumor marker in ICC [33]. Even though it has not been formally incorporated into the eighth edition staging system of the American Joint Committee on Cancer, CA19-9 is recognized as a significant prognostic factor in the manual [34]. Additionally, the role of serum CA19-9 in increasing predictive performance has been observed in ICC staging systems [33]. In previous studies, CA19-9 has been repeatedly included in models predicting the postoperative prognosis of ICC patients and has achieved good predictive performance [33, 35, 36]. This study further validates that CA19-9 > 37 U/L is an independent risk factor influencing both tumor recurrence and OS in ICC patients.

This study reveals that ICC patients with higher scores based on the predictive model are more prone to early postoperative recurrence, and the biological characteristics of tumors are more invasive. This is manifested by larger tumor diameters, a higher proportion of MVI, lymph node metastasis, and surrounding nerve invasion. In the high-risk group, 145 cases (26.4%) of ICC patients were pathologically confirmed to have lymph node metastasis, and 100 cases (18.2%) showed MVI. In contrast, the low-risk group had only 42 cases (10.1%) with lymph node metastasis and 45 cases (10.9%) with MVI. Therefore, more aggressive surgical approaches may be necessary, including extended liver margins, anatomic hepatectomy, more thorough lymph node dissection, neoadjuvant therapy, or postoperative adjuvant anti-recurrence treatment. These aggressive surgical treatments have the potential to improve the prognosis for high-risk patients, and this study provides a basis for treatment decisions for such ICC patients.

The present study should be assessed in light of certain limitations. Primarily, similar to any retrospective analysis, selection bias might have impacted the decision of which patients were candidates for surgical resection. Patients with more aggressive oncologic features may be disproportionately under-represented because they were less likely to be offered surgery. Secondly, although a single-center study allows for standardization of surgical methods, it may not enhance the generalizability of our study results. Multicenter studies are needed to further validate the universality of the results. Third, while ROC curves are a widely accepted method in statistical analysis, they may indeed lack external validity when applied to different patient populations or settings. Last, the variables peripheral and hilar types of ICC were not included in this paper, which may affect the accuracy of the predictive model.

In conclusion, the model combining preoperative NLR and CA19-9 can more effectively predict postoperative recurrence and survival in ICC patients undergoing curative resection. Patients in the high-risk group exhibit more aggressive tumor biology. For high-risk ICC patients, adopting more aggressive treatment strategies may be necessary to achieve better long-term outcomes.

Conclusion

The predictive capacity of postoperative recurrence and OS rates in ICC patients is effectively captured by the preoperative scoring system incorporating NLR and CA19-9 levels.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Material 1.

Abbreviations

ICC Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

HCC Hepatocellular carcinoma

NLR Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio

BMI Body Mass Index

HBV Hepatitis B Virus

PT Prothrombin time

AFP α-Fetoprotein

CEA Carcinoembryonic antigen

CA19-9 Carbohydrate antigen 19–9

MVI Microvascular Invasion

CT Computed tomography

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging

OS Overall survival

TTR Time to recurrence

TBIL Total bilirubin

HBsAg Hepatitis B surface antigen

ALB Albumin

ALT Alanine transaminase

AST Aspartate aminotransferase

GGT Gamma-glutamyl transferase

PT Prothrombin time

PLT Platelet

Acknowledgements

We thank all patients and their families.

Authors’ contributions

SB: Conceptualization; data curation; formal analysis; investigation; methodology; writing- original draft. XS: Data curation; resources. YD: Data curation; resources; methodology. HW: Data curation; resources. YX: Data curation; resources. JL: Data curation; resources. KW: writing-review and editing ,supervision. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This work was not supported by grants.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Retrospective review and collection of patient data were approved by the Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital ethics committee and each patient provided informed consent for the use of their data in research.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Shilei Bai, Xiaodong Shi and Yizhe Dai contributed equally to this work.
==== Refs
References

1. Bridgewater J Galle PR Khan SA Llovet JM Park JW Patel T Pawlik TM Gores GJ Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma J Hepatol 2014 60 6 1268 1289 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.01.021 24681130
Bridgewater J, Galle PR, Khan SA, Llovet JM, Park JW, Patel T, Pawlik TM, Gores GJ. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J Hepatol. 2014;60(6):1268–89.24681130 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.01.021
2. Moris D Palta M Kim C Allen PJ Morse MA Lidsky ME Advances in the treatment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: An overview of the current and future therapeutic landscape for clinicians CA Cancer J Clin 2023 73 2 198 222 10.3322/caac.21759 36260350
Moris D, Palta M, Kim C, Allen PJ, Morse MA, Lidsky ME. Advances in the treatment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: An overview of the current and future therapeutic landscape for clinicians. CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73(2):198–222.36260350 10.3322/caac.21759
3. Ruff SM Diaz DA Pitter KL Hartwell BC Pawlik TM Multidisciplinary management in the treatment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma CA Cancer J Clin 2023 73 4 346 352 10.3322/caac.21779 37046405
Ruff SM, Diaz DA, Pitter KL, Hartwell BC, Pawlik TM. Multidisciplinary management in the treatment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73(4):346–52.37046405 10.3322/caac.21779
4. Wang Y Li J Xia Y Gong R Wang K Yan Z Wan X Liu G Wu D Shi L Prognostic nomogram for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after partial hepatectomy J Clin Oncol 2013 31 9 1188 1195 10.1200/JCO.2012.41.5984 23358969
Wang Y, Li J, Xia Y, Gong R, Wang K, Yan Z, Wan X, Liu G, Wu D, Shi L, et al. Prognostic nomogram for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after partial hepatectomy. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(9):1188–95.23358969 10.1200/JCO.2012.41.5984
5. Zhou YW Li QF Chen YY Wang K Pu D Chen XR Li CH Jiang L Wang Y Li Q Clinicopathologic features, treatment, survival, and prognostic factors of combined hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma: a nomogram development based on SEER database and validation in multicenter study Eur J Surg Oncol 2022 48 7 1559 1566 10.1016/j.ejso.2022.01.023 35115213
Zhou YW, Li QF, Chen YY, Wang K, Pu D, Chen XR, Li CH, Jiang L, Wang Y, Li Q, et al. Clinicopathologic features, treatment, survival, and prognostic factors of combined hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma: a nomogram development based on SEER database and validation in multicenter study. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2022;48(7):1559–66.35115213 10.1016/j.ejso.2022.01.023
6. Shen H Zhang S Xia Y Chen C Huo L Gan L Li J Wang K Pawlik TM Lau WY A Nomogram in predicting risks of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after partial hepatectomy for hepatolithiasis J Gastrointest Surg 2021 25 9 2258 2267 10.1007/s11605-021-04947-w 33565015
Shen H, Zhang S, Xia Y, Chen C, Huo L, Gan L, Li J, Wang K, Pawlik TM, Lau WY, et al. A Nomogram in predicting risks of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after partial hepatectomy for hepatolithiasis. J Gastrointest Surg. 2021;25(9):2258–67.33565015 10.1007/s11605-021-04947-w
7. Mano Y Shirabe K Yamashita Y Harimoto N Tsujita E Takeishi K Aishima S Ikegami T Yoshizumi T Yamanaka T Preoperative neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio is a predictor of survival after hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective analysis Ann Surg 2013 258 2 301 305 10.1097/SLA.0b013e318297ad6b 23774313
Mano Y, Shirabe K, Yamashita Y, Harimoto N, Tsujita E, Takeishi K, Aishima S, Ikegami T, Yoshizumi T, Yamanaka T, et al. Preoperative neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio is a predictor of survival after hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective analysis. Ann Surg. 2013;258(2):301–5.23774313 10.1097/SLA.0b013e318297ad6b
8. Sasaki M Yoneda N Kitamura S Sato Y Nakanuma Y A serum amyloid A-positive hepatocellular neoplasm arising in alcoholic cirrhosis: a previously unrecognized type of inflammatory hepatocellular tumor Modern Pathol 2012 25 12 1584 1593 10.1038/modpathol.2012.114
Sasaki M, Yoneda N, Kitamura S, Sato Y, Nakanuma Y. A serum amyloid A-positive hepatocellular neoplasm arising in alcoholic cirrhosis: a previously unrecognized type of inflammatory hepatocellular tumor. Modern Pathol. 2012;25(12):1584–93.10.1038/modpathol.2012.114
9. Wang X Liu C Chen J Chen L Ren X Hou M Cui X Jiang Y Liu E Zong Y Single-cell dissection of remodeled inflammatory ecosystem in primary and metastatic gallbladder carcinoma Cell discovery 2022 8 1 101 10.1038/s41421-022-00445-8 36198671
Wang X, Liu C, Chen J, Chen L, Ren X, Hou M, Cui X, Jiang Y, Liu E, Zong Y, et al. Single-cell dissection of remodeled inflammatory ecosystem in primary and metastatic gallbladder carcinoma. Cell discovery. 2022;8(1):101.36198671 10.1038/s41421-022-00445-8
10. Shen X Zhao H Jin X Chen J Yu Z Ramen K Zheng X Wu X Shan Y Bai J Development and validation of a machine learning-based nomogram for prediction of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in patients with intrahepatic lithiasis Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr 2021 10 6 749 765 10.21037/hbsn-20-332 35004943
Shen X, Zhao H, Jin X, Chen J, Yu Z, Ramen K, Zheng X, Wu X, Shan Y, Bai J, et al. Development and validation of a machine learning-based nomogram for prediction of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in patients with intrahepatic lithiasis. Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr. 2021;10(6):749–65.35004943 10.21037/hbsn-20-332
11. Spolverato G Maqsood H Kim Y Margonis G Luo T Ejaz A Pawlik TM Neutrophil-lymphocyte and platelet-lymphocyte ratio in patients after resection for hepato-pancreatico-biliary malignancies J Surg Oncol 2015 111 7 868 874 10.1002/jso.23900 25865111
Spolverato G, Maqsood H, Kim Y, Margonis G, Luo T, Ejaz A, Pawlik TM. Neutrophil-lymphocyte and platelet-lymphocyte ratio in patients after resection for hepato-pancreatico-biliary malignancies. J Surg Oncol. 2015;111(7):868–74.25865111 10.1002/jso.23900
12. Motomura T Shirabe K Mano Y Muto J Toshima T Umemoto Y Fukuhara T Uchiyama H Ikegami T Yoshizumi T Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio reflects hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation via inflammatory microenvironment J Hepatol 2013 58 1 58 64 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.08.017 22925812
Motomura T, Shirabe K, Mano Y, Muto J, Toshima T, Umemoto Y, Fukuhara T, Uchiyama H, Ikegami T, Yoshizumi T, et al. Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio reflects hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation via inflammatory microenvironment. J Hepatol. 2013;58(1):58–64.22925812 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.08.017
13. Yugawa K Itoh S Yoshizumi T Morinaga A Iseda N Toshima T Harada N Kohashi K Oda Y Mori M Lymphocyte-C-reactive protein ratio as a prognostic marker associated with the tumor immune microenvironment in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma Int J Clin Oncol 2021 26 10 1901 1910 10.1007/s10147-021-01962-4 34117554
Yugawa K, Itoh S, Yoshizumi T, Morinaga A, Iseda N, Toshima T, Harada N, Kohashi K, Oda Y, Mori M. Lymphocyte-C-reactive protein ratio as a prognostic marker associated with the tumor immune microenvironment in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Int J Clin Oncol. 2021;26(10):1901–10.34117554 10.1007/s10147-021-01962-4
14. Iseda N Itoh S Toshida K Nakayama Y Ishikawa T Tsutsui Y Izumi T Bekki Y Yoshiya S Toshima T Impact of albumin-lymphocyte-platelet-C-reactive protein index as a prognostic indicator of hepatocellular carcinoma after resection: Associated with nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 Hepatol Res 2024 54 1 91 102 10.1111/hepr.13958 37632704
Iseda N, Itoh S, Toshida K, Nakayama Y, Ishikawa T, Tsutsui Y, Izumi T, Bekki Y, Yoshiya S, Toshima T, et al. Impact of albumin-lymphocyte-platelet-C-reactive protein index as a prognostic indicator of hepatocellular carcinoma after resection: Associated with nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2. Hepatol Res. 2024;54(1):91–102.37632704 10.1111/hepr.13958
15. Iseda N Itoh S Yoshizumi T Tomiyama T Morinaga A Shimagaki T Wang H Kurihara T Toshima T Nagao Y Lymphocyte-to-C-reactive protein ratio as a prognostic factor for hepatocellular carcinoma Int J Clin Oncol 2021 26 10 1890 1900 10.1007/s10147-021-01985-x 34251555
Iseda N, Itoh S, Yoshizumi T, Tomiyama T, Morinaga A, Shimagaki T, Wang H, Kurihara T, Toshima T, Nagao Y, et al. Lymphocyte-to-C-reactive protein ratio as a prognostic factor for hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Clin Oncol. 2021;26(10):1890–900.34251555 10.1007/s10147-021-01985-x
16. Buettner S Spolverato G Kimbrough CW Alexandrescu S Marques HP Lamelas J Aldrighetti L Gamblin TC Maithel SK Pulitano C The impact of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio among patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma Surgery 2018 164 3 411 418 10.1016/j.surg.2018.05.002 29903509
Buettner S, Spolverato G, Kimbrough CW, Alexandrescu S, Marques HP, Lamelas J, Aldrighetti L, Gamblin TC, Maithel SK, Pulitano C, et al. The impact of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio among patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Surgery. 2018;164(3):411–8.29903509 10.1016/j.surg.2018.05.002
17. Liu L Wang W Zhang Y Long J Zhang Z Li Q Chen B Li S Hua Y Shen S Declined preoperative aspartate aminotransferase to neutrophil ratio index predicts poor prognosis in patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after hepatectomy Cancer Res Treat 2018 50 2 538 550 10.4143/crt.2017.106 28602056
Liu L, Wang W, Zhang Y, Long J, Zhang Z, Li Q, Chen B, Li S, Hua Y, Shen S, et al. Declined preoperative aspartate aminotransferase to neutrophil ratio index predicts poor prognosis in patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after hepatectomy. Cancer Res Treat. 2018;50(2):538–50.28602056 10.4143/crt.2017.106
18. Wang Y Peng C Cheng Z Wang X Wu L Li J Huang C Guo Q Cai H The prognostic significance of preoperative neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma receiving hepatectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis Int J Surg 2018 55 73 80 10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.05.022 29787804
Wang Y, Peng C, Cheng Z, Wang X, Wu L, Li J, Huang C, Guo Q, Cai H. The prognostic significance of preoperative neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma receiving hepatectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Surg. 2018;55:73–80.29787804 10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.05.022
19 Torzilli G McCormack L Pawlik T Parenchyma-sparing liver resections Int J Surg 2020 82s 192 197 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.047 32335245
Torzilli G, McCormack L, Pawlik T. Parenchyma-sparing liver resections. Int J Surg. 2020;82s:192–7.32335245 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.047
20. Lei Z Xia Y Si A Wang K Li J Yan Z Yang T Wu D Wan X Zhou W Antiviral therapy improves survival in patients with HBV infection and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma undergoing liver resection J Hepatol 2018 68 4 655 662 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.11.015 29155069
Lei Z, Xia Y, Si A, Wang K, Li J, Yan Z, Yang T, Wu D, Wan X, Zhou W, et al. Antiviral therapy improves survival in patients with HBV infection and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma undergoing liver resection. J Hepatol. 2018;68(4):655–62.29155069 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.11.015
21. Spolverato G Yakoob MY Kim Y Alexandrescu S Marques HP Lamelas J Aldrighetti L Gamblin TC Maithel SK Pulitano C The impact of surgical margin status on long-term outcome after resection for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma Ann Surg Oncol 2015 22 12 4020 4028 10.1245/s10434-015-4472-9 25762481
Spolverato G, Yakoob MY, Kim Y, Alexandrescu S, Marques HP, Lamelas J, Aldrighetti L, Gamblin TC, Maithel SK, Pulitano C, et al. The impact of surgical margin status on long-term outcome after resection for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2015;22(12):4020–8.25762481 10.1245/s10434-015-4472-9
22. Yang P Si A Yang J Cheng Z Wang K Li J Xia Y Zhang B Pawlik TM Lau WY A wide-margin liver resection improves long-term outcomes for patients with HBV-related hepatocellular carcinoma with microvascular invasion Surgery 2019 165 4 721 730 10.1016/j.surg.2018.09.016 30554724
Yang P, Si A, Yang J, Cheng Z, Wang K, Li J, Xia Y, Zhang B, Pawlik TM, Lau WY, et al. A wide-margin liver resection improves long-term outcomes for patients with HBV-related hepatocellular carcinoma with microvascular invasion. Surgery. 2019;165(4):721–30.30554724 10.1016/j.surg.2018.09.016
23. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL-ILCA Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J Hepatol. 2023;79(1):181–208.
24. Gomez D Morris-Stiff G Toogood GJ Lodge JP Prasad KR Impact of systemic inflammation on outcome following resection for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma J Surg Oncol 2008 97 6 513 518 10.1002/jso.21001 18335453
Gomez D, Morris-Stiff G, Toogood GJ, Lodge JP, Prasad KR. Impact of systemic inflammation on outcome following resection for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J Surg Oncol. 2008;97(6):513–8.18335453 10.1002/jso.21001
25. Jansson H Cornillet M Björkström NK Sturesson C Sparrelid E Prognostic value of preoperative inflammatory markers in resectable biliary tract cancer - validation and comparison of the Glasgow prognostic score and modified Glasgow prognostic score in a Western cohort Eur J Surg Oncol 2020 46 5 804 810 10.1016/j.ejso.2019.12.008 31848078
Jansson H, Cornillet M, Björkström NK, Sturesson C, Sparrelid E. Prognostic value of preoperative inflammatory markers in resectable biliary tract cancer - validation and comparison of the Glasgow prognostic score and modified Glasgow prognostic score in a Western cohort. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2020;46(5):804–10.31848078 10.1016/j.ejso.2019.12.008
26. Brandau S The dichotomy of neutrophil granulocytes in cancer Semin Cancer Biol 2013 23 3 139 140 10.1016/j.semcancer.2013.02.008 23454237
Brandau S. The dichotomy of neutrophil granulocytes in cancer. Semin Cancer Biol. 2013;23(3):139–40.23454237 10.1016/j.semcancer.2013.02.008
27. Kolaczkowska E Kubes P Neutrophil recruitment and function in health and inflammation Nat Rev Immunol 2013 13 3 159 175 10.1038/nri3399 23435331
Kolaczkowska E, Kubes P. Neutrophil recruitment and function in health and inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol. 2013;13(3):159–75.23435331 10.1038/nri3399
28. Mollinedo F Neutrophil degranulation, plasticity, and cancer metastasis Trends Immunol 2019 40 3 228 242 10.1016/j.it.2019.01.006 30777721
Mollinedo F. Neutrophil degranulation, plasticity, and cancer metastasis. Trends Immunol. 2019;40(3):228–42.30777721 10.1016/j.it.2019.01.006
29. Giese MA Hind LE Huttenlocher A Neutrophil plasticity in the tumor microenvironment Blood 2019 133 20 2159 2167 10.1182/blood-2018-11-844548 30898857
Giese MA, Hind LE, Huttenlocher A. Neutrophil plasticity in the tumor microenvironment. Blood. 2019;133(20):2159–67.30898857 10.1182/blood-2018-11-844548
30. Felix K Gaida MM Neutrophil-derived proteases in the microenvironment of pancreatic cancer -active players in tumor progression Int J Biol Sci 2016 12 3 302 313 10.7150/ijbs.14996 26929737
Felix K, Gaida MM. Neutrophil-derived proteases in the microenvironment of pancreatic cancer -active players in tumor progression. Int J Biol Sci. 2016;12(3):302–13.26929737 10.7150/ijbs.14996
31. Sheng Y Peng W Huang Y Cheng L Meng Y Kwantwi LB Yang J Xu J Xiao H Kzhyshkowska J Tumor-activated neutrophils promote metastasis in breast cancer via the G-CSF-RLN2-MMP-9 axis J Leukoc Biol 2023 113 4 383 399 10.1093/jleuko/qiad004 36801950
Sheng Y, Peng W, Huang Y, Cheng L, Meng Y, Kwantwi LB, Yang J, Xu J, Xiao H, Kzhyshkowska J, et al. Tumor-activated neutrophils promote metastasis in breast cancer via the G-CSF-RLN2-MMP-9 axis. J Leukoc Biol. 2023;113(4):383–99.36801950 10.1093/jleuko/qiad004
32. Shan ZG Chen J Liu JS Zhang JY Wang TT Teng YS Mao FY Cheng P Zou QM Zhou WY Activated neutrophils polarize protumorigenic interleukin-17A-producing T helper subsets through TNF-α-B7-H2-dependent pathway in human gastric cancer Clin Transl Med 2021 11 6 e484 10.1002/ctm2.484 34185422
Shan ZG, Chen J, Liu JS, Zhang JY, Wang TT, Teng YS, Mao FY, Cheng P, Zou QM, Zhou WY, et al. Activated neutrophils polarize protumorigenic interleukin-17A-producing T helper subsets through TNF-α-B7-H2-dependent pathway in human gastric cancer. Clin Transl Med. 2021;11(6):e484.34185422 10.1002/ctm2.484
33. Moro A Mehta R Sahara K Tsilimigras DI Paredes AZ Farooq A Hyer JM Endo I Shen F Guglielmi A The impact of preoperative CA19-9 and CEA on outcomes of patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma Ann Surg Oncol 2020 27 8 2888 2901 10.1245/s10434-020-08350-8 32198569
Moro A, Mehta R, Sahara K, Tsilimigras DI, Paredes AZ, Farooq A, Hyer JM, Endo I, Shen F, Guglielmi A, et al. The impact of preoperative CA19-9 and CEA on outcomes of patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2020;27(8):2888–901.32198569 10.1245/s10434-020-08350-8
34. Lee JW Lee JH Park Y Lee W Kwon J Song KB Hwang DW Kim SC Prognostic predictability of American Joint Committee on Cancer 8th staging system for perihilar cholangiocarcinoma: limited improvement compared with the 7th Staging system Cancer Res Treat 2020 52 3 886 895 10.4143/crt.2020.023 32164049
Lee JW, Lee JH, Park Y, Lee W, Kwon J, Song KB, Hwang DW, Kim SC. Prognostic predictability of American Joint Committee on Cancer 8th staging system for perihilar cholangiocarcinoma: limited improvement compared with the 7th Staging system. Cancer Res Treat. 2020;52(3):886–95.32164049 10.4143/crt.2020.023
35. He C Zhang Y Song Y Wang J Xing K Lin X Li S Preoperative CEA levels are supplementary to CA19-9 levels in predicting prognosis in patients with resectable intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma J Cancer 2018 9 17 3117 3128 10.7150/jca.25339 30210635
He C, Zhang Y, Song Y, Wang J, Xing K, Lin X, Li S. Preoperative CEA levels are supplementary to CA19-9 levels in predicting prognosis in patients with resectable intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J Cancer. 2018;9(17):3117–28.30210635 10.7150/jca.25339
36. Zhang J Huang Q Yang Y Zhang J Fang X Yang Y Liang H Wang W Wang Y A novel prognostic system combining carbonic anhydrase II and preoperative CA19-9 for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after curative resection Cancer 2023 129 7 1030 1040 10.1002/cncr.34639 36625486
Zhang J, Huang Q, Yang Y, Zhang J, Fang X, Yang Y, Liang H, Wang W, Wang Y. A novel prognostic system combining carbonic anhydrase II and preoperative CA19-9 for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma after curative resection. Cancer. 2023;129(7):1030–40.36625486 10.1002/cncr.34639
