
==== Front
MethodsX
MethodsX
MethodsX
2215-0161
Elsevier

S2215-0161(24)00350-9
10.1016/j.mex.2024.102898
102898
Engineering
Challenges in illumination analysis and design for Martian surface-level habitation
Amini Kasra kasraa@kth.se
a⁎
Rastegar Sana b
Janabadi Ehsan Dehghani c
a FLOW and Fluid Physics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
b Department of Construction, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
c Department of Architectural Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Art, Tehran, Iran
⁎ Corresponding author. kasraa@kth.se
08 8 2024
12 2024
08 8 2024
13 10289824 5 2024
6 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
It is needless to say that travel to and settlement on Mars are associated with extreme levels of scientific and engineering issues. This will only be amplified with the long-term duration of the mission, not only due to scarcity of resources, but also as the psychological aspects of the dynamics among the crew increase drastically. It should be emphasized that this is a scientific crew, who have undergone high levels of confinement during space travel to Mars, O (102 Earth days), are living in semi-solitude and partial confinement conditions for durations of O (103 Earth days), and even at the nominal termination of the mission, foresee a high-risk and arduous travel time of O (102 Earth days) back to the Earth. The mental weight of the described mission with its slow pace and tardy episodes, puts the crew under severe psychological issues. Minimal and conservative design of spaces, lack of constant access to the exterior, and social solitude are among major factors contributing to the psychological well-being of the crew. Furthermore, the overall lower levels of natural light, accompanied by the minimum possible area of transparent facades, protecting the crew from harmful radiations and cold exterior, burden the mental conditions of the crew even more. Given the limited availability of data from the surface of Mars, study of the effects linked to the lighting and illumination design of the habitats is challenging. The current manuscript hopes to shed light on the illumination and lighting design and simulation procedure, required data, assumptions, and final results for the surface-level habitats on Mars.• Mars / Sub orbital configuration allows for limited natural lighting, however, upon site-specific analysis, it might be considerable as a base passive source.

• Current simulation tools are design based on Earth-bound design requirements. These need to be re-oriented to match available planetary data.

Graphical abstract

Image, graphical abstract

Method name

Numerical Natural Light Simulations
Keywords

Martian Habitat Units (MHUs)
Lighting and illumination design
Martial surface habitation
Natural light simulation
==== Body
pmcSpecifications tableSubject area:	Space Architecture / Human Mars Mission	
More specific subject area:	Lighting and Illumination Analysis	
Method name:	Numerical Natural Light Simulations	
Name and reference of the original method / article:	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.12.021
Amini K., Janabadi E.D., Fayaz R., Lighting and illumination investigation of long-term residence on Mars for the case of a set of designed Martian Habitat Units (MHUs), Acta Astronautica 192 (2022) 210–232.	
Required data:	Incident and reflected solar flux / climate and seasonal data / site information	
Resource availability:	Satellites in orbit and rovers on the surface of Mars	

Addressing space technological and architectural requirements, Amini et al. [1,2] proposed a comprehensive design for Martial Habitat Unit (MHUs). The MHUs are designed with the Melas Chasma in Valles Marineris in mind, as their site location, for its geological importance for future research among other reasons to be discussed herein. The design revolves around specific needs of scientific crew for long-term residence on Mars. And given the psychological aspects of the missions, the dimmer atmosphere of Mars falls short of providing natural lighting for the interiors of the MHUs. Fig. 1 outlines the research presented here.Fig. 1 Outline and flow of information for the present research. a) Position of the geographical landscape, Valles Marineris, on Mars [8]. b) Site location, Melas Chasma, in the central regions of the Valles Marineris. c) Surface pressure, d) surface temperature, e) zoning distribution of functional and circulation spaces in an MHU, f) sample site location [9], g) a cluster of MHUs located on the surface [1], h) solar flux to the surface at 0900, 1200, and 1500 h, i) core relevant sources for analytical illumination design, j) illumination design and lighting simulation results of the used methods for interior and exterior of the MHUs.

Fig. 1

Background

Amini et al. [3] investigates the potential of Martian surface in providing natural light based on a general scenario assigned to the functional spaces of the MHUs for a long-term habitation of 4–9 crew members. In the analysis, the location of the site, filtering effects of the atmosphere, seasonal radiation and solar flux on the surface, reflected lighting off the planet surface, are considered as boundary conditions and inputs. The specific design of the MHUs, namely the percentage of transparent openings on the exterior facades, and the positioning of the interior spaces and separations are considered as well. Given the functionality of each zone, and its required illumination level, an overall percentage of the target natural light has been obtained, by numerically simulating the MHU geometry and assigning luminance values to its computationally tailored grid system. The present manuscript presents the detailed methodology for illumination and natural lighting analysis for surface-level habitats on Mars.

Considering the underlying principles governing the design of lighting and illumination analysis and software packages, the case of the planet for which the simulations are performed is not relevant. No physical difference exists between Earth, and its neighbor planets, in terms of the way light behaves, shines, and illuminates surfaces on these otherwise non-similar settings. Physics of light in its non-relativistic regimes is universal and applicable for any situation. This being said, no explicit assumptions for the planet (Earth, Mars, or even other exoplanets) are considered in the used softwares. This is inherently analogous to other disciplines, as well. For instance, fundamentals of fluid mechanics governing the ventilation of the habitats are, also, by no means different on Earth or Mars. But to solve for the optimal designs and best results, one ought to adopt the problem definition with all aspects influencing the boundary conditions of the case at hand.

However, it should be emphasized that to perform analytical or numerical simulations targeting illumination configuration in any case, two sets of information are to be well-defined. First the sources of light should be recognized. This includes the intensity of the sources, orientation of them with respect to the case geometry, and their reflections and indirect interactions with it. Given that one does not consider the illumination infinitesimally close to the source, the environment between the source and the receiver is also to be know. For the case of our present manuscript, the main source is the sun, and its distance and yearly configuration with respect to the surface of Mars should be studied under the orbital dynamics and planetary obliquity. The Carrier environment, i.e. the atmosphere of Mars should also be considered as a filtering agent mitigating the output power of the source. Second, the geometry of the case should be described precisely, with all its relevant aspects influencing the received illumination. These would be the location of the site, altitude (i.e. depth) from the edge of the atmosphere, the plan area and design configuration of the interior of the units, the fenestration ratio and orientation on the facades, etc.

The material presented in the present methods paper, the accompanying previously published manuscript [3], together with the relevant works in literature such as Appelbaum and Flood [4], Badescu [5], and Appelbaum et al. [6] cover the required aspects the abovementioned adoption in solving for the illumination assessment for the surface-level habitats on Mars. The upcoming sections of the present manuscript address the essential orbital dynamics and Sun-Mars orientation, atmospheric and planetary conditions along the emission of the light beams towards the surface, effects of reflections as secondary light sources, as well as the description of the case configuration and fenestration.

Method details

Problem definition – the case

Melas Chasma located on the central regions of the Valles Marineris, the largest crater on the entire solar system is considered as the site location for the Martian Habitat Units (MHUs). The geological significance of this region due to access to the de facto depth of the planet crust, up to ∼4 km, renders it a target landing site for many future expeditions on Mars. It should also be mentioned that the ∼4 km thicker layer of atmosphere on top of this region provides better radiation protection, as well as a longer deceleration due to the drag force on the landers in the otherwise problematic case of landing in an extremely tedious atmosphere of Mars.

The equator-adjacent location of Melas Chasma, and its geo-climatic conditions have made it relatively warm, compared to typical Martian temperatures. Fig. 2 presents the temperature variations between ∼250 and 300 K with Trms values bound by 15 K. Given the rotational axis misalignment of the planet, the zenith angle reaches a maximum value of 0.6 rad over the span of Martial year.Fig. 2 Yearly variation of atmospheric parameters for the fixed location of Melas Chasma, Valles Marineris [10].

Fig. 2

In contrast to Fig. 2, presenting yearly variations of the parameters for the location of the site, Fig. 3 presents the distribution of the parameters over the full map of the planet, but for the planet orbital position of aerocentric longitude Ls = 315°, one meter from the averaged local surface, and at the local time of 1200 h. Among the said parameters, it is observed that higher dust deposition is anticipated for the location of the site. This could be explained based on the micro-climate of the crater and the cavity flow field formed on top it. Dust settlement in a cavity flow field is a known phenomena in fluid dynamics of large- and small-scale secondary geometries. Being buried under a thicker atmospheric layer, however, the bottom of the canyon is slightly colder than similar latitudes in the nearby regions. It should also be noted that another micro-climate is governed by separating the Valles Marineris regions from the western side of the planet, shielded by high altitudes of the Olympus Mons and its neighboring heights.Fig. 3 Martian surface data for areocentric longitude of 315°, elevation of 1 m from the local average surface, and local time of 1200 h [10]. a) Solar zenith angle, b) daily mean dust deposition on a horizontal surface, c) surface temperature, d) day-to-day temperature RMS variations, e) daily mean dust column visible optical depth above surface, f) monthly mean dust column visible optical depth above surface, g) incident solar flux on horizontal surface, and h) reflected solar flux on horizontal surface.

Fig. 3

Martian Habitat Units (MHUs) were designed to accommodate the needs of a scientific crew for long-term settlement on the surface of Mars. The units are considered for maximum of 9 crew members each, and a set of 10 MHUs are clustered to form a closed neighborhood with their local grid and combined solar farm in the interior of the cluster. Each MHU is a separate unit, with emergency access to the neighboring MHUs from the first floor (Fig. 4). A peripheral garden area encompasses the interior of the MHUs, providing space for relevant research, plant-based food harvesting, and visual comfort. The enveloping garden also enhances the transition from low atmospheric pressure of the Martian surface to the human level ambient pressure of the MHU interior with an intermediate pressure level, compatible with the vegetation and plants located in the semi-interior spaces of the said garden.Fig. 4 Detailed plans of the space allocation on the ground level and first floor of the MHU [1].

Fig. 4

The ground level of the units is allocated for functional spaces, laboratories, medical units, storage facilities, quarantine spaces, gyms, offices, telecommunication, AI and Life Support System (LSS) areas, etc. Whereas the first floor is reserved for private crew suites. There is a limited area on the second floor, considered as a bunker for extreme conditions, in which the crew will seek shelter until the third-party rescue arrives. There are local green areas connecting the ground- and first floor vertically.

The entire design follows a complex multi-layered hexagonal module system. This will allow for flexibility of design and re-allocation of areas, as well as great efficiency in the construction of the units, and installation of the functional equipment plates on the walls/floors/ceilings. The hexagonal motif has also been used in the exterior facades of the MHUs, with transparent fenestration guiding natural light into the garden area, and consequently the interior of the MHUs. A dome-like elastic membrane (i.e., the Anti Dust-Settlement Membrane, ADSM) covers the roof-top of the MHUs. The ADSM is adjustable to control the flow field in the interior of the cluster, mitigating the dust settlement on the photovoltaics in the solar farm. More detailed information and an exhaustive list of features of the MHUs are available in Amini et al. [1].

Method governing principles

The core principles of lighting and illumination analysis are discussed in the present section. It should be noted that the main obstacle for these analyses for Martian surface units relies on lack of abondance of the illuminance data from the surface of the planet, as well as the complex orbital dynamics required to be considered in order to accurately incorporate the effects of the raw data into the models. That being said, Fig. 5 could be referred to as an introductory explanation of the nomenclature of the geometrical parameters obtained from the orbital configuration of the planet. Mars, similar to Earth, rotates around itself with an axis inclined with respect to the planet/sun orbital plane. The inclination angle is δ0 = 24.936° As a result, seasonal dynamics similar to that of Earth is governed between the northern and southern hemispheres, which is expanded over the Martian year. The orbital trajectory of the planet has an eccentricity defined as the ratio between the difference to the summation of the shortest and longest distance from the sun, along the main axis of the elliptical orbit.Fig. 5 Schematic sketch on the nomenclature of the method equations – an orbital dynamics perspective.

Fig. 5

The zenith angle θz is given as:(1) θz=Arccos[cosϕcosδcosω+sinϕsinδ],

where δ, ϕ, and ω denote the solar declination angle, latitude, and the hour angle [11]. Based on the daily and yearly conditions, the hour- and the solar declination angles are calculated as Appelbaum and Floor [4]:(2) ω=15tsolar−180,

and(3) δ=Arcsin[sinδ0sinLs],

given the known planet rotational obliquity, δ0.

Having the geometric angular orientation of the site location under study, as functions of the orbital plane and planet rotational configurations, the beam irradiance on a probing surface perpendicular to the incoming radiated light rays from the sun in the outer periphery of the Martian atmosphere is given as a function of the areocentric longitude and orbital eccentricity, as [5]:(4) I0=590[1+ecos(Ls−248∘)]2(1−e2)2,

where the value of 590 W/m² has been reported as the mean beam irradiance. It should also be noted that e is the orbital eccentricity, with the numerical value of 0.093377. Next, the same parameter, but corresponding to the surface level on the planet is obtained through [6]:(5) I⊥=I0exp(−τcosθz),

where the optical depth τ is given by Appelbaum et al. [6] as:(6) τ(ϕ,Ls)=max{0.5,[195001+(ϕ/150)4000+(ϕ+48.1)2].K+[127001+(ϕ/410)4000+(ϕ+13.1)2].L},

with K and L defined as:(7) K=e−(Ls−215)2730

(8) L=e−(Ls−295)2730

The direct irradiance is obtained from projection of the previously calculated beam irradiance along the solar ray using the zenith angle.(9) IH=I⊥cosθz

This will provide the required Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) parameter for daylight analysis. Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) is then obtained through:(10) GH=I0cosθzf(θz,τ,a)1−a,

where the surface albedo a, and the normalized net solar flux function f are given by Appelbaum et al. [6]. And eventually, the Diffusive Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) is the difference between the above two parameters.(11) DH=GH−IH

Solar irradiance is the most critical parameter in the simulation and solar analyses of the MHUs. Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) represents the irradiance over a horizontal surface. Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) is the irradiance that incises directly from the sun on the horizontal plane. Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) remains scattered on the line between the sun and the position of the energy system [7]. Therefore, a significant part of the scattered light in the atmosphere, which reaches the horizontal surface near the location of the MHUs is already calculated in the mathematical equations in the previous sections and used as inputs for the purpose of simulation. Remaining irradiance due to the reflection of the incoming light off the Mars surface is an addition to the amount of interior natural light. The MHU lighting analyses, herein, are applied as a worst-case scenario and the results shows the minimum supplied daylight inside of each interior space to be complemented by the active energy-consuming lighting sources Table 1.Table 1 DNI, GHI and DHI values for the middle point of each month on Mars in Melas Chasma, Valles Marineris.

Table 1Ls [deg]	T1 = 0900 h	T2 = 1200 h	T3 = 1500 h	
	DNI	GHI	DHI	DNI	GHI	DHI	DNI	GHI	DHI	
	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	[W/m2]	
15	171.70	327.82	156.12	305.46	467.35	161.89	171.70	327.82	156.12	
45	136.57	259.50	122.93	254.50	401.45	146.95	136.57	259.50	122.93	
75	116.06	229.47	113.41	224.91	366.52	141.61	116.06	229.47	113.41	
105	120.74	238.72	117.98	233.97	381.30	147.33	120.74	238.72	117.98	
135	151.76	288.34	136.58	282.79	446.08	163.29	151.76	288.34	136.58	
165	197.17	356.30	159.13	350.77	536.67	185.90	197.17	356.30	159.13	
195	235.84	409.99	174.15	405.10	611.48	206.38	235.84	409.99	174.15	
225	252.09	436.25	184.16	423.90	642.05	218.15	252.09	436.25	184.16	
255	249.10	435.42	186.32	414.84	631.88	217.04	249.10	435.42	186.32	
285	240.91	421.11	180.20	401.21	611.11	209.90	240.91	421.11	180.20	
315	229.65	397.41	167.76	386.16	584.69	198.53	229.65	397.41	167.76	
345	206.63	356.70	150.07	354.92	535.74	180.82	206.63	356.70	150.07	

Implementation details

There are many valid lighting analysis programs which could be used as a lighting simulation tool for the current purpose. For example, lady-bug and honey-bee are plugins for Rhinoceros 3D software in which lighting analyses can be done. Also, there are other various computer-based tools accessible to the precise appraisal of the building's daylighting and thermal execution such as MATLAB-based energy libraries, Energy Plus [12], Velux, Relux, DIALux, in the energy analysis process [13]. The key point in this project was to analyse daylight accessibility to each space of the MHU by using an accurate 3D model and keeping all analysed data in the 3D model as well. This allows to have an information model which can be accessed in any stage of the design or energy optimizations.

Autodesk Revit is one of the most famous Building Information Modelling (BIM) softwares. Autodesk Revit usually uses other computer programs and sub-routines to do any type of simulation. Such programs mostly have one-way connections with such BIM-based 3D modelling software [14]. In Table 2, a number of add-Ins for daylight and lighting analysis and their analysis engines are shown [14].Table 2 Comparison between different daylight analysis softwares with a Revit add-in (borrowed: [14]).

Table 2Software	When in the Design Process	Results Visualizer Software	Simulation Engine	Metrics	Access to Radiance Files	Materials	
Climate Studio	Early to the End	Rhinoceros	Radiance	…	Yes	by Revit Category	
Lightstanza	Early	Lightstanza	Cloud-Based Radiance	DF, Lux, DGP, aDGP, UDI, sDA, ASE, cDA	No	by Lightstanza Category	
Naviate Daylight	Early to the End	Naviate / Revit	Radiance	Only DF	No	by Revit Category	
Elumtools + LicasoⓇ	Early to the End	Elumtools / Revit	Own Engine	…	–	by Revit Materials	
Autodesk Insight 360*	Early to the End	Revit	Own Cloud-Based Engine	DF, Lux, DA, sDA, ASE	–	by Revit Materials	
AftabRad	Early to the End	Revit	Radiance	…	Yes	by Revit Materials	
⁎ Entries in italic denote the items chosen for the present study.

In order to access all analysed data at any time, building information modelling method was selected for the daylight analyses. Also, the accurate 3D model of an MHU with exact dimensions of the façade and glazing system was modelled and prepared [3]. As the result, Autodesk Revit 2021 is used for 3D modelling of one of the MHUs and Autodesk Insight 360 is chosen for the daylight analyses. By using them, lighting analysis can be shown on the actual plans of the BIM model (Fig. 6).Fig. 6 Sample software environment. a) 3D modeling in Autodesk Revit before starting lighting analysis. All aspects of the geometry are modeled exactly in their real size and shapes to enhance the daylight access analyses accuracy. Here a 3D section of the 1st floor of an MHU is shown. b) Daylight analysis result generated and saved inside the BIM model in Autodesk Revit. All analyses data are saved in the cloud and is accessible at any time by Autodesk lighting analysis results manager. As it is shown herewith, the lighting analysis is accurately projected on the existing ground floor plan and can also be illustrated in a 3D section by the Autodesk Revit software itself.

Fig. 6

All analyses include some invariable parameters and variable parameters. Invariable parameters in these simulations include grid size and the height of analysis plan and geometrical parameters of the MHU unit except the direction of the unit compared to North, which is called rotation [3]. The rotation of the MHU is an invariable parameter that is analysed under two different conditions. One for the MHUs with zero angle between axis 1 and north-south direction, which will be called North/South, and one for MHUs with 90° between axis 1 and north-south direction, which is called West/East [3].

Some important strategies and inputs must be set before starting the lighting analyses in Revit which are mentioned in the following section. First step is to set site location to the software. In Autodesk Revit all locations must be set on Earth and there is no possibility to set them on Mars. So, the location of the MHU cluster on Mars should be accurately projected on Earth for analyses as another invariable parameter. For illuminance analyses five other parameters which are invariable are needed. The numerical values of Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Diffused Horizontal Irradiance (DHI), Time of the day (T) and day of the year (Ls). After providing all mentioned inputs, analyse planes must be set inside each space of the MHU. The Insight 360 knows all Revit rooms as calculation planes. In the next step, the height of the calculation planes from each floor and the size of the grids on each plane should be set in lighting analysis settings. Then in the next step all provided data must be put inside the software. These values must be set exactly before the start of any analysis submission to cloud. DNI, DHI and GHI are calculated in calculation models for 12 different Solar longitudes, as explained in the previous section. These longitudes are represented to Revit as 12 of 360 days in a Mars year. Each of them is selected as one day at the middle of a Martian month. By analysing 2 times of a day which are 9:00AM and 12:00PM, for 12 areocentric longitudes of each two types of MHU rotation angles, 48 different results are obtained from Autodesk Revit lighting analysis.

The main point in analysing inside a BIM based software like Revit is that the results automatically will be projected on the technical plans and drawings. Then the plan views can be exported to any formats for publishing and also can easily be reached any time you access the cloud or Revit file. In addition to that, inside visual settings for each plan view there is a setting which allows us to change the colored view of a daylight analysed plan, to a view in which we can see any point on the plan with exact value of daylight in Lux. So, for all analyses, four points are selected to read their exact illuminance value for further investigations and comparisons in this research.

Method results – case study sample results

Given the nature of the problem addressed in this manuscript, the validity of the method could be inferred a priori, and considering the current absence of the designed habitats on the surface of Mars, and lack of experimental probing equipment at the moment on the surface of the planet, the authors do not consider it required to verify the method per se. However, the sample results of the case study have been shown briefly, and coupled the accompanying paper [3] so that the audience familiar with typical results of illumination analysis could confer the qualitative verification of the used ansatz.

Fig. 7 presents a sample case with the daylight analysis results for Ls = 195 at 0900 h local time. The bird-eye-views section through first and second level of the MHU, shows the luminance at a plane 1 m above each floor. As is observed, the surrounding garden area is well illuminated only through natural lighting, with some direct points of glare. In the interior of the MHUs, the areas adjacent to the fenestration are illuminated, and understandably the interior most areas (which are also separated by interior walls) are not getting any natural light. Fig. 8 illustrates an exhaustive presentation of all the juxtaposition of simulated cases for 12 areocentric longitudes, two daytimes (0900 and 1200 h), west/east and north/south oriented MHUs, and again for the first and second floors. More detailed analyses of the results are to be found in Amini et al. [3].Fig. 7 Sample 3D results. The case of Ls = 195 at 0900 h, top) second floor, bottom) first floor [3].

Fig. 7

Fig. 8 Full space of the simulated cases: North/South and West/East oriented MHUs, at 0900 and 1200 h, for the mid-day of each Martian mouth. Color coding illustrates the luminance level at 1 m elevation from the floor at levels 1 and 2 of the MHUs.

Fig. 8

Limitations

Not applicable.

Ethics statement

Not applicable.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Kasra Amini: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sana Rastegar: Visualization. Ehsan Dehghani Janabadi: Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgements

This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
==== Refs
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