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Sci Rep
Scientific Reports
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10.1038/s41598-024-71696-6
Article
Understanding time perspective’s influence on academic burnout and achievement in Chinese undergraduates
Hong Shuai evanness@126.com

12
Hanafi Zahyah 2
1 https://ror.org/03rp8h078 grid.495262.e 0000 0004 1777 7369 School of Education, Shandong Women’s University, Ji’nan, People’s Republic of China
2 https://ror.org/0498pcx51 grid.452879.5 0000 0004 0647 0003 School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences and Leisure Management, Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
3 9 2024
3 9 2024
2024
14 2043017 3 2024
30 8 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
University students are highly vulnerable to experiencing academic burnout due to various pressures, necessitating an exploration of its causes and effects. Time perspective theory emphasizes how individuals' perspectives of past, present, and future events shape their behavior. Yet, the relationship between time perspective, burnout, and academic achievement remains unclear. This study investigates this association in Chinese undergraduates using survey and official grade point average (GPA) data. Results indicate positive correlations between Past-Negative, Present-Hedonistic (PH), Present-Fatalistic time perspectives, and academic burnout. Additionally, only Present-Hedonistic (PH) and future time perspectives significantly predict GPA. A mediation model reveals misbehavior as a mediator between Present-Hedonistic (PH) time perspective and GPA. These findings highlight time perspective’s importance in academic well-being and outcomes, shedding light on the distinct roles of future and Present-Hedonistic time perspectives.

Keywords

Time perspective
Academic burnout
Academic achievement
Present-hedonistic time perspective
Future-time perspective
Subject terms

Human behaviour
Risk factors
issue-copyright-statement© Springer Nature Limited 2024
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pmcIntroduction

The prevalence of academic burnout among youths has garnered considerable attention, as they face immense pressure to excel academically in today’s highly competitive society1. Notably, university students are particularly susceptible to experiencing academic burnout due to the multitude of pressures they encounter, surpassing those faced by high school or middle school students2. Studies have reported increased risks of burnout among university students in Finland3 and Malaysia4, as well as high levels of stress experienced by Korean adolescents due to academic pressures5. Similarly, in China, the prevalence of academic burnout has risen from 37.5% in 2007 to 61.63% in 20196,7. Consequently, students may lose interest and motivation in their studies, exhibit absenteeism, or become distracted by smartphone during classes8,9. This not only negatively impacts students’ well-being but also squanders educational resources. Thus, it is imperative for researchers to investigate the causes and consequences of academic burnout to mitigate further academic problems.

Existing research has explored various factors contributing to academic burnout, including external environmental factors and internal individual factors10,11. These factors encompass self-efficacy12, perfectionism13, locus of control, coping strategies4, and core self-evaluation10. However, despite being a crucial psychological variable, time perspective has received limited attention in the study of academic burnout. Time perspective refers to individual differences in the temporal dimensions of the past, present and future orientations14,15. Zimbardo and Boyd14,15 identified five dimensions of time perspective: past-positive (PP), past-negative (PN), present-hedonistic (PH), present-fatalistic (PF), and future time perspective. Time perspective have been shown to have a significant impact on various psychological outcomes, including health related behaviors16, decision making process17, and self-efficacy18. In the educational context, time perspective has also been emerged as a valuable predictor of academic performance19, students’ engagement in learning and academic achievement20,21, and academic engagement22. However, no studies have explicitly investigated the relationship between time perspective and academic burnout. According to time perspective theory, as a personal psycho-temporal trait, time perspective affects individual's emotions and has been supported by numerous empirical studies23–25. Hampson26 further argued that negative and positive emotionality is one of the mechanisms by which personality traits exert their influence. Academic burnout, on the other hand, as an important aspect of academic well-being27, is a negative emotional experience that may be related to time perspective. Although no research has been found on the relationship between time perspective and academic burnout, empirical evidence suggests a correlation between time perspective and other negative academic experiences, such as procrastination28,29 and academic disaffection30. Based on theoretical expectations and empirical evidence, it is reasonable to hypothesize that time perspective is related to academic burnout. This study aims to address this research gap by examining the correlations between time perspective dimensions and academic burnout, hypothesizing significant associations and considering time perspective as a predictor of academic burnout.

In addition, academic achievement serves as a crucial indicator of educational quality and students’ learning effectiveness over time. It refers to the knowledge and skills acquired through formal education31, commonly measured by grade point average (GPA) at the university level32. There is a growing global demand for colleges and universities to implement effective strategies that enhance academic achievement and adequately prepare undergraduates for the workforce and global citizenship33. It is worth noting that previous research has shown a link between time perspective and academic success34. Studies have demonstrated that time perspective predicts students’ learning behavior and academic outcomes19,21,35. However, while the future dimension of time perspective has received substantial research attention, the present and past dimensions remain largely unexplored. Therefore, this study aims to examine all five dimensions of time perspective to determine their associations with academic achievement, building on the hypothesis that academic burnout mediates the relationship between time perspective and academic achievement.

In summary, this study aims to fill the research gap regarding the associations between time perspective, academic burnout and academic achievement among Chinese undergraduate students. By employing a quantitative survey-based research method, the relationships between these variables will be investigated. The study proposes three hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1

There is a significant correlation between time perspective, academic burnout, and academic achievement.

Hypothesis 2

Time perspective has a significant predictive effect on both academic burnout and academic achievement.

Hypothesis 3

Academic burnout mediates the relationship between time perspective and academic achievement.

Methods

Participants

The study included 220 undergraduate students recruited from two comprehensive public universities located in Shandong Province, Eastern China. These universities, with a combined enrollment of 36,708 undergraduate students spanning four academic years, were selected for their representativeness. Utilizing an anonymous questionnaire, each participant was filled the unique student ID to match their official GPA records. The survey was distributed through various means, including direct distribution in classrooms, email invitations, and social media platforms frequented by students. Following the exclusion of invalid responses, data from 209 participants were deemed valid, comprising 185 females (88.5%) and 23 males (11%). Among the participants, 129 (61.7%) hailed from rural areas, while 79 (37.8%) originated from urban. Regarding academic level, the sample consisted of 47 freshmen (22.5%), 91 sophomores (43.5%), 34 juniors (16.3%), and 37 seniors (17.7%). Table 1 presents an overview of the demographic characteristics of participants. Table 1 Participants’ demographic characteristics (N = 209).

Variables	n	%	
Gender	Male	23	11	
Female	185	88.5	
Place of birth	Rural	129	61.7	
Urban	79	37.8	
Missing	1	0	
Academic year	Freshman	47	22.5	
Sophomore	91	43.5	
Junior	34	16.3	
Senior	37	17.7	

Measures

Time perspective

Time perspective was assessed using the Chinese version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI)36. This instrument, renowned for its reliability and validity, encompasses 25 items distributed across five subscales: Past-Positive (PP), Past-Negative (PN), Present-Hedonistic (PH), Present-Fatalist (PF), and Future Time Perspective. For example, sample items include reminiscing about childhood memories for PP, recurrent thoughts of past painful experiences for PN, impulsive behavior for PH, belief in fate for PF, and the ability to resist temptation for future-oriented thinking. Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Scores for each dimension were calculated based on the mean of constituent items. The ZTPI-Chinese version has been validated for use among Chinese university students36. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the PP, PN, PH, PF and FTP subscales were 0.82, 0.84, 0.78, 0.74, and 0.75, respectively, indicating good internal consistency reliability across all five subscales. The confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) supported that the measurement of the Chinese version had acceptable construct validity (χ2 = 415.97, df = 265, RMSEA = 0.055, CFI = 0.89, TLI = 0.88).

Academic burnout

Academic burnout was assessed using the Learning Burnout of Undergraduate Student (LBUS) developed by Lian et al.37. This instrument comprises 20 items distributed across three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, misbehavior, and inefficacy. Emotional exhaustion captures feelings of fatigue, frustration, and disinterest resulting from students’ inability to effectively manage academic challenges, as exemplified by the item “I feel exhausted after studying all day.” Misbehavior encompasses actions such as skipping classes or failing to submit assignments due to boredom with academic pursuits, as indicated by the item “I feel that the knowledge I have learned is useless.” Inefficacy reflected in the item “I am qualified for college courses.” Notably, the 6 items within the inefficacy dimension were reverse-scored. Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the overall LBUS scale in the present study was 0.878, indicating good internal consistency reliability. Dimension-specific coefficients were 0.717 for misbehavior, 0.823 for emotional exhaustion and 0.729 for inefficacy. The construct validity was examined using CFA, the results indicated an acceptable fit (χ2 = 220.36, df = 116, RMSEA = 0.069, CFI = 0.881, TLI = 0.891).

Notably, while the CFI and TLI indices for both instruments were slightly below the recommended threshold of 0.90, they remain close to this benchmark. Hu and Bentler38 suggest that values slightly below 0.90 can still be acceptable, especially with small sample sizes, as these indices are sensitive to sample size variations. Given our modest sample size (N = 209), this may have impacted the model fit indices. Additionally, other fit indices, including the χ2/df ratio and RMSEA, were well within the acceptable limits, further supporting the validity of our instruments. According to Hair et al.39, a χ2/df ratio of less than 3 and RMSEA values between 0.05 and 0.08 indicate a good model fit, while an RMSEA value of less than 0.05 indicates an excellent fit. In our study, both instruments had χ2/df ratios below 3 and RMSEA values below 0.08, confirming the validity of our measurements.

Academic achievement

Academic achievement was assessed using students' GPA scores, obtained from the academic administration of the university at the end of the semester. The GPA scores served as a reliable indicator of academic achievement. Each student’s GPA was match with their provided student ID to ensure accuracy and confidentiality.

All data collection adhered to ethical standards, with written informed consent obtained from all participants. The study was reviewed and approved by the Human Ethics Committee of Taylor’s university, ensuring compliance with ethical guidelines and protocols.

Data analysis

The collected data was subjected to several statistical analyses using SPSS 26.0 and PROCESS programs40. Descriptive statistics were calculated to examine the distributional characteristics of the variables. Partial correlation and regression analysis were conducted to explore the associations between time perspective, academic burnout, and academic achievement. Furthermore, mediation effects analysis was performed to investigate whether academic burnout mediates the relationship between time perspective and academic achievement.

Results

Preliminary analysis

The preliminary analysis encompassed descriptive statistical analysis, MANOVA, partial correlation analysis, aiming to provide comprehensive insights into the means, standard deviations, and interrelationships among the variables and their respective dimensions. First, effects of the controlled variables were examined. In this study, demographic variables including gender, academic year, and place of birth were collected through the personal information section of the questionnaire. These variables were treated as controlled variables, and a MANOVA analysis was performed to assess their impact on GPA. Due to an uneven distribution of the gender sample, where the male sample size was smaller than the minimum requirement of 30 observations, gender was excluded from the analysis. The results indicated a significant main effect of academic year on GPA (F(3,209) = 9.16, p < 0.001). However, no significant main effect was observed for place of birth, nor was there a significant interaction between academic year and place of birth. Consequently, academic year was controlled for in all subsequent analyses. Detailed MANOVA results are provided in Supplementary Material. Following this, Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics and partial correlation for the studied variables. Table 2 Descriptive statistics and partial correlations among variables.

Variables	M	SD	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	
1 PP	3.85	.67	 − .29***	.20**	 − .02	.20**	 − .05	 − .01	 − .04	 − .10	.13	
2 PN	2.82	.72	1	.29**	.49***	 − .21**	.39***	.40***	.30***	.27***	.07	
3 PH	2.80	.75		1	.32***	 − .28***	.41**	.37**	.40***	.25**	.13*	
4 PF	2.64	.77			1	 − .30***	.55**	.52***	.45***	.40**	.01	
5 Future	3.69	.57				1	 − .52**	 − .39**	 − .55**	 − .42***	.20**	
6 AB	2.68	.51					1	.92**	.84**	.76**	 − .12	
7 Exhaustion	2.65	.66						1	.64**	.56**	 − .08	
8 Misbehavior	2.83	.59							1	.50**	 − .13*	
9 Inefficacy	2.58	.50								1	 − .09	
10 GPA	3.36	.39									1	
PP = past-positive, PN = past-negative, PH = present-hedonistic, PF = present-fatalistic, AB = academic burnout; *p < .05, , ***p < .01; Academic year as a controlled variable.

Table 2 reveals significant correlations between time perspective and academic burnout. Specifically, the dimensions of past-negative (PN), present-hedonistic (PH), and present-fatalistic (PF) exhibited positive associations with academic burnout across all three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, misbehavior, and inefficacy. Conversely, the future time perspective displayed significant negative correlation with academic burnout and its associated dimensions.

Regarding the relationship between time perspective and academic achievement (GPA), the dimensions of present-hedonistic (PH) and future were found to have significant positive correlations with GPA. However, no significant correlations were observed between the other dimensions of time perspective and GPA.

In terms of the association between academic burnout and GPA, misbehavior demonstrated a significant negative relationship with GPA. Additionally, both emotional exhaustion and inefficacy displayed negative correlations with GPA, although these did not reach significance. The findings from the preliminary analysis partially support hypothesis 1.

The predictive role of time perspective

Based on the aforementioned correlations, regression analysis was conducted to further explore the predictive influence of time perspective on dimensions of academic burnout and academic achievement. The outcomes of this analysis are presented in Table 3. Table 3 The predictive role of time perspective.

	Exhaustion	Misbehavior	Inefficacy	GPA	
β	SE	t	β	SE	t	β	SE	t	β	SE	t	
Academic year	 − .02	.04	 − .41	 − .08	.03	 − 1.56	 − .17	.03	 − 2.8**	.31	.03	4.78***	
PP	.07	.06	1.11	.03	.05	.41	 − .04	.05	 − .54	.07	.04	.93	
PN	.17	.07	2.24*	.05	.05	.69	.04	.05	.57	.12	.04	1.45	
PH	.14	.06	2.09*	.18	.05	2.94**	.07	.05	1.04	.15	.04	2.05*	
PF	.33	.06	4.9***	.24	.05	3.64***	.26	.05	3.57***	 − .01	.04	 − .18	
FTP	 − .23	.07	 − 3.71***	 − .42	.06	 − 7.08***	 − .30	.06	 − 4.54***	.22	.05	3.02**	
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001; Academic year as a controlled variable.

The findings supported hypothesis 2 and revealed that past-negative (PN), present-hedonistic (PH), and present-fatalistic (PF) time perspectives exhibited a significant positive predictive impact on the dimensions of academic burnout. Conversely, future time perspective demonstrated a significant negative predictive effect on the dimensions of academic burnout. However, the past-positive (PP) time perspective did not yield significant predictive power for any dimensions of academic burnout.

In contrast, the predictive strength of time perspective on GPA was relatively weaker. Only present-hedonistic (PH) and future time perspectives displayed a significant positive predictive effect on GPA. Other dimensions of time perspective did not demonstrate significant predictive power in relation to GPA.

The mediating role of academic burnout in the relationship between time perspective and academic achievement

In line with Hypothesis 3 and guided by the findings from preliminary and regression analyses, we conducted mediation analyses to explore the role of misbehavior in the relationship between present-hedonistic (PH) and future time perspectives as independent variables and academic achievement (GPA) as the dependent variable.

The results of the path analysis revealed a significant mediating model, indicating that misbehavior mediated the relationship between present-hedonistic (PH) time perspective and GPA (see Fig. 1). Specifically, PH time perspective exhibited a significant and positive direct effect on GPA (β = 0.13, t = 1.91, p < 0.05). Furthermore, PH time perspective demonstrated a significant and positive indirect effect on GPA through misbehavior (β = 0.21, t = 2.94, p < 0.01). Additionally, misbehavior showed a significant and negative effect on GPA (β =  − 0.20, t =  − 2.92, p < 0.01). The 5000 resamples bias-corrected bootstrap iterations revealed a 95% confidence interval for the indirect path of present-hedonistic (PH) time perspective via misbehavior affecting GPA of [− 0.081, − 0.011], which did not include zero, indicating a significant mediating effect.Fig. 1 Mediation Analysis of PH and Future time perspective on GPA via Misbehavior. Standardized coefficients were presented; academic year as controlled variable; *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001..

Figure 1 also depicted the influence of misbehavior on the relationship between future time perspective and GPA. The total effect of Future time perspective on GPA was significant (β = 0.19, t = 2.87, p < 0.01), with a bootstrap 95% confidence interval of [0.04, 0.22]. Future time perspective showed a significant and negative effect on misbehavior (β =  − 0.55, t =  − 9.38, p < 0.001), and a direct positive effect on GPA (β = 0.17, t = 2.18, p < 0.05). However, the indirect effect of misbehavior as mediator was nonsignificant, as the 95% confidence interval for the indirect path of future time perspective via misbehavior affecting GPA was [− 0.05, 0.07], inclusive of zero.

Discussion

This present study examined the relationship between time perspective, academic burnout, and academic achievement among undergraduate students in China. The hypotheses regarding the impact of time perspective on academic burnout and academic achievement were supported, with different dimensions of time perspective showing varying effects.

Firstly, future time perspective demonstrated a negative predictive effect on academic burnout and a positive predictive effect on academic achievement. These findings align with previous research emphasizing the positive role of future time perspective in academic activities19,21. Students with a future-oriented perspective can set goals and use long-term objectives as motivation for current learning activities, leading to improved academic achievement22,34. Additionally, the results suggest that future time perspective may serve as a protective factor, mitigating the development of academic burnout.

Secondly, both past-negative (PN) and present-fatalistic (PF) perspectives were positively correlated with and predicted levels of academic burnout. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating the maladaptive effects of both PN and PF perspectives20. Holding a negative attitude towards the past and adopting a more pessimistic outlook on the present can contribute to academic burnout. This highlights that PN and PF perspectives are undoubtedly maladaptive time perspectives.

Furthermore, this study made a unique contribution by uncovering the distinct role of present-hedonistic (PH) perspective in predicting academic achievement. Previous research has often associated PH perspective with negative behaviors such as risk propensity41 and substance use42, considering it an maladaptive time perspective. However, this study found that PH perspective also had a positive predictive effect on GPA to some extent. This finding prompts us to reconsider the misconceptions surrounding PH perspective. In line with the rise of positive psychology, concepts emphasizing present-focused attention and increased awareness, such as mindfulness, have been valued and utilized as effective strategies for coping with stress and burnout41–43. Inspired by this, an appropriate PH orientation may help students focus on the present moment, increase engagement in their studies, and consequently enhance academic performance. On the contrary, an excessive focus on the present time perspective may lead to a pursuit of pleasure and immediate gratification, thereby reducing motivation and commitment in academic pursuits, resulting in lower academic achievements. Thus, future research should further investigate the role of PH perspective in academic activities.

Finally, while the direct negative influence of academic burnout on GPA was not observed, an intriguing finding emerged where only the misbehavior dimension significantly predicted lower GPA scores. Moreover, misbehavior emerged as a crucial mediating variable, explaining the pathway from present-hedonistic (PH) perspective to GPA. This implies that the mere experience of burnout may not inherently precipitate a decline in academic achievement; rather, only when manifested in behavioral disengagement does it impacts learning outcomes. Drawing from Self-Regulation Theory44,45, individuals regulate their behaviors, emotions, and cognitive processes through self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-feedback to achieve their goals. In academic settings, students confronted with feelings of academic burnout may leverage their self-regulatory abilities to adopt proactive behaviors to cope with these emotions16,35,46. Specifically, they may employ positive learning strategies, time management skills, or seek support to combat academic burnout, thereby sustaining learning motivation and academic behaviors47. Such adaptive responses might mitigate the negative impact of academic burnout on academic performance and achievement, highlighting individuals’ self-regulatory capacity and adaptability.

Limitations and future directions

Several limitations should be acknowledged in this study. Firstly, the imbalanced gender ratio in the sample limits the generalizability of the findings, as the large female sample may not adequately represent the experiences of both genders. Future studies should aim for a more balanced representation of genders to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Secondly, the use of a cross-sectional survey design restricted the examination of trends over time. A longitudinal follow-up study would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of time perspective on academic burnout and academic achievement, allowing for the exploration of temporal dynamics and causal relationships. Thirdly, the sample size collected at each academic year was not sufficiently large to account for potential grade level differences in time perspective and academic burnout. Future research should consider increasing the sample size and ensuring an appropriate distribution across different grade levels to control for these effects.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study enhances our understanding of the differential effects of various dimensions of time perspective on academic well-being and outcomes, expanding our knowledge of the influence of this unique temporal dimension on personality traits in the educational domain. The results indicate that future and present-hedonistic time perspectives exhibit adaptive roles, positively predicting academic outcomes while also combating academic burnout. Conversely, past-negative and present-fatalistic time perspective demonstrate maladaptive effects on academic status. Notably, present-hedonistic time perspective presents a subtle role, with appropriate levels promoting present focus, reduced distractions, increased academic engagement, and improved academic performance, while excessive indulgence may lead to a pursuit of immediate gratification and pleasure, hindering academic commitment. Furthermore, the pivotal role of future time perspective was also emphasized. By highlighting the complex association between variables, this study offers valuable insights for both researchers and practitioners in the field.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Information.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-71696-6.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the participant students who devoted their time to complete the survey without any form of compensation. Their cooperation and willingness to contribute to this research are truly appreciated. Their involvement has been crucial in obtaining the necessary data for this study.

Author contributions

S.H. conducted the data collection, analysis, and interpretation, while Z.H. provided guidance, oversight of the theoretical framework, and expertise throughout the research process. Both authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethical approval

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Human Ethics Committee of author’s university (No. HEC 2023/258). Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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