
==== Front
Heliyon
Heliyon
Heliyon
2405-8440
Elsevier

S2405-8440(24)11915-9
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35884
e35884
Research Article
A study on the bond strength and durability characteristics of high-performance concrete modified with toughened glass waste aggregates
Surendran Hariharan
Akhas Punitha Kumar punithakumar.a@vit.ac.in
⁎
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
⁎ Corresponding author. punithakumar.a@vit.ac.in
06 8 2024
30 8 2024
06 8 2024
10 16 e358849 5 2024
24 6 2024
6 8 2024
© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2024

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
Amidst rising natural aggregate consumption, recycling dumped waste for structural concrete effectively addresses resource scarcity and environmental contamination. Nevertheless, the adoption of toughened glass waste aggregate (TGWA) in construction remains relatively limited. This study explores the potential use of toughened glass waste (TGW) as a substitute for natural coarse aggregate (NCA) in high-performance concrete (HPC). This paper assesses the bond strength of deformed bars embedded in toughened glass waste high-performance concrete (TGW-HPC), considering different steel reinforcement diameters (8 mm and 12 mm) and various levels of TGW replacement (ranging from 0 % to 100 %). Various durability properties, including water absorption, water permeability, chloride ion penetration, and acid attack were examined. The study also investigated the microstructural characteristics of acid attacked specimens using techniques such as XRD, FTIR, and FESEM. Several important parameters, such as chloride diffusivity (D), hydraulic diffusivity (D (θ)), and permeability coefficients (K), were derived from the experimental data. The study found TGW50-HPC resulted in the highest bond strength, about 13.1 % more than the control mix. However, TGW100-HPC bond strength decreased by 17.51 % compared to the control mix. Notably, TGW100-HPC exhibited superior durability properties and showed the lowest coefficient of permeability, indicating reduced chloride ion, and water molecule transport through the interconnected pore structure. At 90 days, the TGW100-HPC mixture exhibited a strength reduction of 42.29 %, which closely resembled the 41.20 % reduction observed at 56 days. The formation of thenardite and basanite mitigate damage to the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) led to fewer micro-cracks and reduced acid ingress through the matrix. Incorporating TGWA in engineering projects can lead to cost savings through reduced raw material expenses and disposal fees, resulting in significant economic benefits and social well-being.

Keywords

Bond strength
Chloride diffusivity
High-performance concrete
Hydraulic diffusivity
Microstructure
Toughened glass waste aggregate
==== Body
pmc1 Introduction

The rapid expansion of infrastructure has led to the continuous depletion of natural aggregates in cement concrete due to their extensive consumption. As the population increases, it is anticipated that there will be a corresponding increase in the infrastructure requirements. The aging infrastructure and its reconstruction have resulted in significant consumption of natural aggregate, which has become scarce. The global demand for crushed stone aggregates has shown a growth rate of 6.4 % in the year 2021, totalling 20.8 billion tons of aggregate extraction, and it is set to witness a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.8 % throughout 2021 to 2031 [1]. In this regard, several alternative approaches are being investigated to identify substitutes for the construction aggregate. Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) has been extensively investigated as a substitute, where generally, the incorporation of RCA has compromised structural capacity and durability [[2], [3], [4]]. As an alternative, steel slag from the steel industries is being investigated extensively as a substitute for natural aggregate. Hence, there is a significant focus on conducting comprehensive research to discover alternative coarse aggregates that can both fulfil the increasing demands in construction while also adhering to sustainability requirements. Researchers proposed crushing recycled coarse aggregate into recycled manufactured sand, which has high-quality properties similar to natural stone. This approach resulted in high-strength and durable recycled mortar. Incorporating recycled fine aggregate increased drying shrinkage and decreased mechanical strength. However, the mortar with recycled manufactured sand showed lower water absorption and chloride ingress compared to the mortar with recycled fine aggregate [5].

Concrete is responsible for the majority of the blame for the excessive utilization of resources. The most significant problems associated with concrete are its substantial contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, the substantial requirement of large quantities of natural resources, and the creation of significant waste during construction and demolition [6]. Cartuxo et al. [7] proposed the application of superplasticizers to enhance the workability and porosity of concrete, and their research identified a rise in the compressive strength of concrete composed of fine aggregates. Additionally, they pointed out that blending mineral additives like fly ash with fine aggregates could boost both the workability and strength of concrete. Another approach suggested for augmenting the mechanical properties of aggregates is the utilization of sodium silicate and silica fume [8]. Nevertheless, numerous techniques aimed at improving properties or durability might not be embraced by the concrete industry, as they tend to prolong the concrete casting process, directly influencing production costs. During the cement hydration, silica fume reacts with lime, producing a C–S–H gel that enhances the engineering properties of the concrete. It was discovered in research studies that using finer silica fume in concrete improved particle packing [9]. Kaur et al. [10] investigated the use of high-volume ground bottom ash (GBA) as a cement substitute in combination with fly ash (FA) to develop sustainable high-performance concrete (HPC) with a compressive strength of 100 MPa. They found that incorporating 10 % FA into HPC reduced the need for superplasticizer, improved workability, and showed slightly lower early strength. Ansari's study examines the structural performance of high-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete under elevated temperatures. The research involved partial cement replacement with 40 % and 50 % fly ash. The results show that plain concrete experienced more significant weight loss than fly ash concrete. Additionally, the residual load-carrying capacity of fly ash concrete was superior under stressed conditions compared to unstressed conditions [11]. Zhang et al. [12] investigated the effects of fly ash and silica fume on the performance and workability of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC). The synergistic effect among the additives, steel fibers, and cement resulted in improved flowability and mechanical properties in high-performance concrete. Wang et al. [13] studied the impact of silica fume (SF) on the compressive strength of geopolymer-based ultra-high-performance concrete (G-UHPC) under ambient curing conditions. The results showed that high SF dosages (>10 %) actually decreased compressive strength, while lower dosages had a positive effect.

Waste materials can also be utilized in concrete manufacturing to alleviate this issue. The use of lightweight aggregates such as toughened glass waste not only conserves resources but also improves the final product's engineering properties. The bond strength between steel bars and concrete is crucial for the structural integrity of reinforced concrete elements. The pull-out test is conducted to study the same. Standard failure modes include pull-out and splitting failure during pull-out tests [14]. Pull-out failure involves the bar being pulled out from the specimen, causing significant damage to the bar's surface. Splitting failure, conversely, manifests as cracks on the specimen's upper surface, often accompanied by slight cracking sounds, ultimately resulting in the specimen breaking into multiple pieces. Xiong et al. [15] investigated bond behavior using fiber-wrapped basalt reinforced polymer bars (BFRP), and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). They found that bond strength increases with higher concrete strength and bar diameters. The bond strength between steel bars and concrete is crucial for the structural integrity of reinforced concrete elements. Preventing slippage between them is vital to avoid failure under external loads. Factors affecting bond strength include aggregate type, concrete strength, steel bar characteristics, embedded length, and concrete cover. The surface and type of steel bars seem to have a more significant impact on bond strength than the type of aggregates, with rougher surfaces enhancing friction. Bayesteh et al. [16] studied the bond strength between GFRP and steel bars in soil cement. They found that increasing the steel rebar diameter by 50 % resulted in an 18 % and 30 % decrease in bond strength for ribbed and GFRP rebars, respectively. This suggests that steel rebars have a stronger bond with soil cement compared to GFRP rebars. Zhou et al. created a model to predict bond strength between steel bars and concrete, considering cracking, damage, and confinement. The model, based on the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, was validated against experimental data from 123 specimens, showing its effectiveness in estimating bond strength in real-world scenarios [17]. In addition, researchers investigated the behavior of hot-dipped galvanized steel against chloride corrosion and its impact on bond strength to concrete. They accelerated corrosion using an electrical field and found that initial corrosion due to high alkalinity in fresh concrete does not affect reinforced concrete performance. Additionally, galvanized steel exhibits superior bond strength to concrete compared to non-galvanized steel [18]. Wang et al. [19] studied the bond properties between high-strength manufactured sand concrete (HMC) and steel bars in railway engineering. They found that the bond failure modes differ between plain and ribbed bars, and the bond strength between HMC and steel bars is higher than that between river sand concrete (RSC) and steel bars. The bond strength also increases with the addition of stone powder, but then decreases, with an optimal content of 5 %–10 %. According to Li et al. [20] early vibration exposure can negatively impact the bond behavior between deformed steel bars and high-strength concrete (HSC). The study found that the bond stiffness of HSC is the most vulnerable to environmental vibration, decreasing by up to 62.6 %, followed by bond strength (39.4 %) and compressive strength (33.7 %).

Glass from disposed and dumbed waste is developing into a severe issue of storage and landfills worldwide [21]. This influence is noticeable in cement mortars containing glass waste, owing to improved cohesion between the cement and glass aggregates. Many studies [[22], [23], [24]] have reported a significant drop in water absorption and sorptivity, correlating with a rise in temperature in the amount of recycled glass aggregates, and also resistant to acid degradation found increased concrete stability. Wright et al. [25] established that the enhanced compactness of the glass, achieved with finer gradations, is a key factor contributing to the improved resistance of mortar against chloride permeability. Ling and Poon [26] noticed that glass waste helps to enhance concrete stability by resistant to acid attack, reducing water absorption immersion and water permeability with increases in glass waste content. Using waste glass aggregates and waste glass powder reduces sorptivity in concrete composites [27,28]. Similarly, researchers have seen the possibility of substituting glass waste for standard fine aggregate in concrete without compromising exceptional performance. Furthermore, using waste glass as fine aggregates resulted in a significant decrease in heat conductivity and a reduction in cement mortar sorptivity. Beverage glass waste have also been credited with improving the properties of concrete and mortar. The charge allowed to pass through hardened concrete measured in rapid chloride ion penetration (RCPT) tests decreases when beverage glass waste is added to the mix [29]. Carazeanu Popovici and Lupasu [30] conducted a study about an acid attack in concrete and confirmed that glass has a sacramental nature. Furthermore, aggregates account for 70 % of the volume of concrete and are one of the primary constituent ingredients used in high-performance concrete production. These aggregates must be stiff and strong, long-lasting, and adaptable with cement paste in terms of strength and toughness [31]. According to Polley et al. [32] waste glass aggregates possess irregular shapes, suboptimal surface characteristics, and a notable susceptibility to fragmentation. Improved natural resource consumption has been regarded as a significant international issue with severe ecological, social, and economic repercussions [33,34]. Toughened glass waste (TGW) exhibits favorable physical and strength properties, making it a viable option for concrete production. Furthermore, better in durability characteristics. This application prevents the disposal of toughened glass waste in landfills, thus contributing to environmental sustainability [35]. Hariharan and Punitha Kumar [36] conducted an assessment on substituting coarse aggregates with toughened glass waste aggregate in high-performance concrete. This approach presents an ideal balance between cost-effectiveness and environmental preservation by decreasing dependence on natural aggregates. This aspect holds significant importance in construction, as it helps discover novel sustainable materials that can enhance energy efficiency in buildings and contribute to natural energy conservation, which is particularly relevant given the world's growing population.

This study addresses a gap in the literature by exploring the bond strength effects of using toughened glass waste aggregates (TGWA) to enhance high-performance concrete (HPC) properties. The research includes theoretical and experimental analysis of TGW-HPC by substituting natural coarse aggregate (NCA) with TGWA at various proportions (25 %, 50 %, 75 %, and 100 %) to evaluate their durability and usability in engineering. In this study, water absorption, water permeability, sorptivity, rapid chloride permeability, and acid resistance tests were evaluated. Specifically, x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectrograph (FT-IR) analysis were used to explore the acid attack mechanism at the microscopic level.

1.1 Research significance

Limited research efforts have been dedicated to using TGWA as a recycled material in HPC. Most existing studies have focused on assessing the mechanical properties of concrete by substituting glass waste with cement and fine aggregate. On the other hand, the potential of toughened glass waste as a coarse aggregate has yet to be explored. Previous research has primarily concentrated on the fresh and mechanical attributes of TGW-HPC. In contrast, the comprehensive study on the experimental outcomes related to the bond strength and durability aspects of the same has been discussed in this article. The present study concentrates on the feasibility and technical benefits of recycling and reusing TGWA as NCA replacement in HPC concerning better durability, energy efficiency, and cost-effectiveness in the total construction process. It also increased attention to the sustainable and environmentally friendly advancement of building materials, especially those with high strength.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

To formulate HPC, the OPC adhered to IS12269 [37] standards with a specific gravity of 3.15. M-sand from Zone III confirming IS 383:2016 [38], Type F fly ash and silica fume as supplementary cementitious materials are used. The TGWA is collected from the waste glass scrap purchasers Chennai warehouse and is used as a coarse aggregate. TGW aggregates was mechanically treated using Los Angeles abrasion machine (LA) and size of the TGW aggregates is made to 6–10 mm as shown in Fig. 1. The chemical composition of fly ash, silica fume, and TGWA depicted in Table 1. Required workability was achieved by using a polycarboxylic ether superplasticizer, Master Glenium SKY 8233, in the mixes.Fig. 1 Toughened glass waste aggregates (TGWA).

Fig. 1

Table 1 Chemical composition of TGW, silica fume and fly ash.

Table 1Sl. No	Element	Fly ash (%)	Silica fume (%)	TGW (%)	
1	SiO2	54.3	96	73.1	
2	Al2O3	28.01	0.26	2.01	
3	CaO	3.91	0.23	10.13	
4	Fe2O3	7.14	0.3	0.59	
5	MgO	0.41	0.53	2.04	
6	K2O	1.59	0.51	0.61	
7	Fe2O3	7.14	0.3	0.59	
8	TiO2	2.11	–	0.47	
9	ZnO	–	–	0.06	
10	SO3	0.31	0.13	0.38	

The mix design and the representation of each mix are given as given in Table 2. The cement replacement by silica fume and fly ash and NCA by TGWA has been done based on volume. The superplasticizer (SP) amount was defined based on trial batch's fresh concrete workability to ensure the concrete mixture's high quality for casting specimens.Table 2 High performance mix proportioning.

Table 2Mix designation	Cement (kg/m3)	Silica Fume (kg/m3)	Fly ash (kg/m3)	M-Sand (kg/m3)	TGW (kg/m3)	NCA (kg/m3)	Water (kg/m3)	SP dosage	
TGW0-HPC	434.5	33	82.5	794	976	0	154	4.4	
TGW25-HPC	434.5	33	82.5	794	732	244	154	4.4	
TGW50-HPC	434.5	33	82.5	794	488	488	154	4.4	
TGW75HPC	434.5	33	82.5	794	244	732	154	4.4	
TGW100-HPC	434.5	33	82.5	794	0	976	154	4.4	

2.2 Experimental methods

2.2.1 Pull-out test

Thirty pull-out specimens were subjected to testing to assess anchorage bond strength. During the pull-out experiment, an universal testing machine with a capacity of 1000 kN was used. For this experiment, the pull-out load was applied at a constant speed of 1.5 mm/min in a displacement-control manner accordance with IS2770 [39]. The failure mode for the specimens observed is the splitting pull-out failure.

Calculation of ultimate bond strength assuming uniform distribution of bond stress along anchoring length is in Eqn. (1),(1) τu=Pmaxπdla

where τu is the average value of the ultimate bond strength (MPa), P, d, and l represent the maximum pull-out load (kN), diameter of the steel rebar (mm), and the anchoring length in mm respectively.

2.2.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

The UPV values of 28 and 91 days of HPC mixtures with toughened waste glass as coarse aggregate and the addition of silica fume and fly ash were evaluated with 150 mm concrete cubes by ASTM C 597–02 [40].

2.2.3 Water absorption by immersion

Water absorption was calculated in three 100 x 100 × 100 mm3 HPC samples of different mixtures after curing for 28 days using ASTM C642 [41]. The samples were oven-dried for 24 h at 105 °C and then cooled to room temperature. The mass of oven-dried specimens was noted as A. The samples were then immersed in water at 21 °C for 72 h to maintain a specified saturated surface-dried mass. The effect of water absorption was calculated as the proportion of the water absorbed by the oven-dried sample to its mass.

2.2.4 Water permeability test

Sealed concrete blocks of 150 x 150 × 150 mm are tested for water permeability at constant pressure. The permeability test apparatus is a model. The permeability is quantified by measuring the dampness depth through the sample's pores by the penetrated water [42].

2.2.5 Sorptivity

The sorptivity coefficient of the specimens was evaluated using an ASTM C 1585–13 [43], capillary water absorption test. Three 100 mm diameter by 50 mm height molds were prepared for each HPC mixture, and the experiment was performed after curing for 28 days. The samples were oven-dried at 110 °C for 24 h. The samples were then allowed to reach room temperature. Their surfaces were properly wrapped with sealing tape to prevent moisture from entering, while the bottom faces were left open.

2.2.6 Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT)

The resistance to chloride ion penetration is evaluated with the RCPT test. The specimens of 50 mm thickness and 100 mm diameter are considered as per ASTM C1202 [44]. Six specimens were tested simultaneously with a prepared sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. Every 30 min, test observations were recorded from 0 to 600 min. The amount of charge passed was computed.

2.2.7 Permeability, chloride ion and hydraulic diffusivity

Coefficient of permeability is related to the chloride ion and hydraulic diffusivity of the specimen. The experimental results are used to deduce the diffusivity values from the corresponding permeability values. The coefficient of permeability is calculated as(2) k=e2v2ht

The equation for calculating the depth of penetration (e) of concrete in meters, under hydraulic pressure, is e = (vh)/(kt), where h is the hydraulic head in meters, t is the time under pressure in seconds, and v is the fraction of the volume of concrete occupied by discrete pores, such as air bubbles, which do not fill with water except under pressure. The value of v can be calculated from the increase in the mass of concrete during the test.

The sorptivity of the specimen indicates the percentage of interconnected pores within the structure which, has a direct relationship with the permeability of the specimen [45]. The hydraulic diffusivity can be calculated from the sorptivity values and the coefficient of permeability. Hydraulic diffusivity is the ratio of hydraulic conductivity to specific water capacity. The specific water capacity is deduced from the initial sorptivity test results.

Along with the hydraulic diffusivity, chloride ion diffusivity also can be expressed from the permeability results. Berke and Hicks proposed an empirical formula to establish a relationship between the Rapid Chloride Penetration (RCP) value and the chloride diffusion coefficient (D) in m2/s [45]. The formula is expressed as(3) D=0.0103(RCP)0.84x10−12

where the unit of RCP is Coulombs.

2.2.8 Resistance to acid attack

The acid attack test was performed after 28 and 56 days of exposure per ASTM C 267 [46]. The testing procedure is designed to analyze the resistance of the concrete to harsh acidic environments. Under the anticipated service conditions, an acidic environment was created using 5 % sulfuric acid. The concrete cubes of 100 mm3 were oven-dried at 100 °C to remove physically bound water and wholly immersed in sulfuric acid solution. The weight change and the strength of the acid-cured concrete specimens were measured periodically and compared to that of the water-cured specimens of the same age. The microstructural and mineralogical behaviour of the acid attacked specimens were thoroughly examined by FESEM, XRD, and FTIR.

2.2.9 Microstructural analysis

The crystalline characteristics of material samples are analyzed by an X-ray diffraction (XRD). The X-ray powder diffraction pattern was collected on a Bruker diffractometer (D8 Advance model, Germany) with theta/2theta geometry source operating a ceramic tube at 2.2 kW and a copper anode. The detector has a Lynx eye detector working under silicon strip detector technology. The X-ray diffraction pattern was recorded in the 10°-70° 2θ range with a step size of 0.014° for all specimens. The counting time was recorded as 23 s per step.

Crushed samples of HPC were inspected using Fourier transform infrared spectrograph (FTIR) by IRaffinity 1, Shimadzu FT-IR Spectrophotometer. The equipment has a 0.5–16 cm−1 resolution and a 4000-400 cm−1 spectral range. In this experiment, after 28 days of testing, small samples of hardened HPC mixtures were powdered to determine the molecular groups present in HPC incorporated with fly ash, silica fume, and TGWA.

Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) was used to identify any microstructural changes in HPC mixes after adding TGW aggregates and subsequent acid exposure. A concrete grinder was used to slice 10 mm samples. The ground specimens were smoothened further with diamond paste before being dried at 100 °C for one day. The instrument used for the analysis is FESEM - FEI Quanta FEG250 with a resolution of 1.2 nm @ 30 kV and an operating voltage range of 5 kV–30 kV.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Pull-out test

Pull-out test were investigated on HPC-TGW with steel bars as shown in Fig. 2. Steel rebar diameter and bond strength are inversely proportional. Large rebar diameter has smaller bonding area which reduces the bond strength. For 8 mm dia rebar, TGW50-HPC exhibited the highest bond strength about 13.1 % more than the control mix. However, beyond this point, when using TGW100-HPC, a decrease in bond strength of 17.51 % lower than TGW0-HPC mix was observed, as shown in Fig. 3. For 12 mm dia rebar, same trend was followed as 8 mm pull-out test. TGW50-HPC bond strength was 9.93 % higher than TGW0-HPC, and TGW100-HPC was lower by 23.27 % considering TGW0-HPC. Up to 50 % TGW replacement, the bond between glass aggregates and steel rebar was found to be very high, however for higher replacements the bond strength reduced due to the brittle response.Fig. 2 Bond strength of TGW-HPC specimens.

Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Bond strength of TGW-HPC mixes.

Fig. 3

The high bond strength can be attributed to the increase in frictional coefficient of TGWA after Los Angeles abrasion testing. After reaching the peak value, there was a sudden drop in load, and no friction-related resistance was observed during the descending branch. The bond strength remained relatively consistent with changes in bar diameter, but in some cases, it showed a slight decrease with larger bar diameters. The rebar diameter variation didn't have a significant impact on the plateau extent. When larger bar diameters were used, the post-peak behavior was unfavorable. As the surface area of embedment increased, the maximum bond stress decreased, indicating a size effect on rebar bond strength. Confining reinforcement, such as spirals or ties, had a limited impact on bond strength, but the use of spirals slightly increased it. It is generally believed that once a pull-out failure begins, increasing concrete cover or providing strong confining reinforcement cannot further increase the τmax value.

3.2 Ultrasonic-pulse velocity (UPV)

The ultrasonic pulse velocities (UPV) of the TGW0-HPC to TGW100-HPC can be seen in Fig. 4. The successive replacement of NCA by TGWA shows a progressive increment in UPV value. In the case of 100 % NCA replacement with TGWA, UPV values of the samples were higher as compared to that of 0 % replacement. This observation is consistent with the results obtained from the compressive strength tests. This is because the transmission of ultrasonic waves through toughened glass (which has a smooth surface) is faster as compared to that through the natural aggregate. Aggregate type, concrete porosity, and ITZ characteristics are the most critical factors influencing UPV values [47]. When TGW aggregate is used in high-performance concrete, along with SCM's, TGW100-HPC mix has achieved a maximum pulse velocity value and is around 2–8% higher compared to the reference mix for 28 and 91days of curing as shown in Fig. 4.Fig. 4 Ultrasonic pulse velocity for TGW-HPC mixes.

Fig. 4

3.3 Durability properties

3.3.1 Water absorption test

In HPC mixtures, the substitution level of natural aggregate by TGW aggregate increases, as shown in Fig. 5. The value of water absorption decreases with an increase in replacement. TGW100-HPC specimens have the lowest water absorption of any HPC specimen, decreasing by 17.60 % compared to TGW0-HPC specimens. This decrease in water absorption characteristics could be attributed to TGWA's smooth surface and lack of absorptive capacity. Additional cementitious materials such as silica fume and fly ash caused a reduction in cracks, voids, and water penetration in HPC mixtures. It is commonly believed that high-quality concrete absorbs water at a rate of less than 10 % [48]. De Castro and De Brito [23] clarified that the mixes performance, including glass aggregates, showed a reduction of 14–24 % for replacement of 10 % and 30 %, respectively.Fig. 5 Water absorption of TGW-HPC mixes.

Fig. 5

3.3.2 Water permeability

Water penetration depths into concrete with different TGWA contents after 28 days is given in Table 3. The error bars represent the range of the obtained results. After 28 days, concrete with 100 % NCA replacement by TGWA shows a much-reduced water penetration depth of around 25 % compared to TGW0. The reason for this may be the low porosity offered by the strong bonding created by TGWA and the cement mortar matrix at the ITZ. The depth of water penetration for TGW0-HPC and TGW25-HPC specimens increases to 30 mm and 28 mm, respectively, when compared to TGW100-HPC specimens, which have a depth of 24 mm. When compared to TGW0-HPC, water permeability has decreased by 25 %. The impermeable voids in the interface of cementitious matrix and TGW aggregates limit water penetration, which prevents water from entering the concrete specimens. Similarly, De castro and De Brito evident that the performance of the mixes with glass aggregates is lesser than that of the reference concrete [23]. The variations range from 9 % to 18.4 %, which results in an almost constant value and may be due to the glass aggregates' weak water absorption and the mixes' similar microstructure.Table 3 Water permeability values for each mix.

Table 3Mix designation	Water penetration depth (mm)	Permeability coefficient (K)	
TGW0-HPC	30	6.25E-11	
TGW25-HPC	28	5.44E-11	
TGW50-HPC	26	4.69E-11	
TGW75-HPC	25	4.34E-11	
TGW100-HPC	24	4.01E-11	

3.3.3 Sorptivity test

The sorptivity of an HPC mixture is a measure of microporosity. The amount of water absorbed by the pores of HPC specimens is called sorptivity. The findings showed TGW aggregates having a lower moisture consumption than natural coarse aggregate, and sorptivity values significantly decreased as TGWA content increased. TGW0-HPC and TGW100-HPC sorptivity values of HPC specimens were 2.40 and 0.78 mm/h1/2. TGW100 mix has a 67.5 % decrease in sorptivity. The value of the sorptivity of each mix was calculated using regression analysis from the slope of the linear line graph shown in Fig. 6. The sorptivity values of TGW-HPC decreased compared to the conventional HPC, attributed to the fact that while sorptivity decreased due to glass impermeability, the strength of HPC specimens reduced due to weak bonding between TGW aggregates and mortar matrix. According to Menendez et al. [49], durable concrete has a sorptivity value of less than 3 mm/h1/2. To prevent corrosion, a minimum of 15 mm of concrete cover was specified for steel bars in reinforced concrete. With a sorptivity value of 3 mm/h1/2, water can permeate to a depth of 15 mm in 24 h, guaranteeing the least concrete cover. According to this hypothesis, the TGW-HPC mixes made in this study might be considered durable since their sorptivity coefficient is less than 3 mm/h1/2.Fig. 6 Sorptivity values of TGW-HPC mixes.

Fig. 6

3.3.4 Rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT)

RCPT results in coulombs (C), high-performance concrete incorporated with TGW aggregates after curing of 28 and 91 days, as shown in Fig. 7. ASTM C1202 classifies RCPT values from high to low concerning coulomb values. At the same time, TGW-HPC showed very low penetration after curing at 28 and 91 days. Furthermore, the fine particles (SF & FLA) as a cement replacement to the HPC reduced the RCPT values.Fig. 7 Rapid chloride permeability test.

Fig. 7

TGW100-HPC demonstrated very low RCPT at the age of 28 days. A 20–30 % decrease in RCPT value was seen when TGW aggregates were added to HPC along with the supplementary cementitious materials, as shown in Fig. 8. Very low RCPT for TGW-HPC mixes due to the pozzolanic reaction, which fill the pores and cause a dense concrete matrix. Regarding compressive strength, the RCPT values of TGW25-HPC matched those of TGW0-HPC. At 91 days, TGW100-HPC had a very low RCPT (368C).Fig. 8 Resistance to chloride ion penetration of TGW-HPC mixes.

Fig. 8

De Castro and De Brito investigated the performance of the mixes with glass aggregates in the penetration of chloride ions [23]. It reveals some stability in the results as the replacement rate increases, primarily controlled by the composition of the cementitious paste. Fly ash and, silica fume, pozzolanic materials limit the penetration of chloride ions through modification of the microstructure of the cement matrix and C–S–H formed by its nature. Silica fume materials refine the permeability of the structure, particularly at the interface between TGW aggregates and mortar [50].

3.3.5 Permeability, chloride ion and hydraulic diffusivity

The transport properties K and D are related to the interconnected pore network within the structure [51]. Therefore, it is possible to connect these properties to sorptivity and water absorption. Fig. 9(a) shows the relationship between K and water absorption, while Fig. 9(b) and (c) show the relationship between K and chloride diffusivity, and hydraulic diffusivity of the TGW0-HPC to TGW100-HPC. The results indicate a critical increase rate of K, D, and D (θ) for the reference mix without NCA replacement by TGWA. However, the progressive increase in NCA replacement by TGWA from 25 to 100 % is followed by the corresponding decrease in permeability and chloride diffusivity D. The appearance of the macro crack, which usually takes place in the ITZ (softening behavior) state, results in enhanced transportation properties. The NCA replacement by TGWA improves the ITZ with enhanced bonding properties, which reduces the propagation of micro-cracks to the matrix. Additionally, the chloride diffusivity of a crack is bounded by lower and upper limits. Therefore, there is not a significant increase in the chloride diffusion coefficient even at the percolation threshold of the micro crack network (appearance of a macro crack).Fig. 9 Permeability vs a) Water absorption b) Hydraulic diffusivity c) Chloride ion diffusivity.

Fig. 9

3.3.6 Acid attack

3.3.6.1 Variation in weight

Fig. 10 depicts the variation in the mass of concrete cube samples when exposed to an acidic atmosphere. Fig. 11(a and b) shows that change in mass of TGW-HPC specimens and when TGWA is incorporated into concrete mixtures, the mass loss decreases. At both 28 and 56 days of acid curing, the mass reduced for all concrete mixtures. This reduction in mass can be attributed to the absorption of the acid solution, leading to the formation of products such as ettringite. The damage during this period is associated with removing the top layer of concrete cubes. The TGW0-HPC showed a maximum damage of 9.33 %, while the TGW100-HPC had a reduced damage of 7.47 % at the age of 28 days. Similarly, TGW0-HPC showed a maximum damage of 15.61 %, while the TGW100-HPC had a reduced damage of 9.98 % at the age of 56 days. This reduced damage in mass may be due to the sacrificial nature of TGWA, which prevents the deterioration of the cement matrix. Therefore, less mortar paste is being lost on continued exposure. Additionally, the products formed between TGWA and the sulfuric acid reaction might possess better binding properties than ettringite. Fig. 11 shows that scaling occurs more in TGW0-HPC, which destroys surface layers compared to the TGW-HPC sample.Fig. 10 Differences in weight of TGW-HPC mixes after acid attack.

Fig. 10

Fig. 11 Acid attack (a) TGW0-HPC and (b) TGW100-HPC mixes.

Fig. 11

3.3.6.2 Change in compressive strength

In Fig. 12, we can see the change in compressive strength for samples affected by acid. The increase or decrease in compressive strength depends on the development of end products such as ettringite and their removal into the acidic solution. After being exposed for 28 days, the compressive strength of the mixture with TGW100-HPC was found less strength (38.40 %) compared to TGW0-HPC mixture (14.69 %). The reduction in compressive strength for mixes that include waste glass can be attributed to an increase in void content, which allows more sulfate ions to enter the concrete sample. Least change was observed in TGW50-HPC mix (23.80 %) when compared to TGW0-HPC mix. Waste glass may have dissolved in the acid solution, and the resulting chemical product is less harmful than ettringite. Equations (4), (5) shows the development of basanite and thenardite helps safeguard the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), leading to fewer microcracks, decreased acid infiltration into the matrix, and an increased density of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H). From equation (6), the addition of excess silica in TGW with cement hydration results in formation of stronger CSH.(4) 2Ca(OH)2+2H2SO4→2CaSO4.H2O+3H2O

(5) Na2O+H2SO4→Na2SO4+H2O

(6) Ca(OH)2 + 2(SiO2.H2O) → CaO.2SiO2.2H2O + H2O

when the exposure duration is increased to 56 days, a significant decrease in compressive strength is observed for TGW100-HPC compared TGW0-HPC. As the exposure period increases, the filler behavior of reaction products tends to dominate, capturing more volume than the products from which it is generated. This leads to internal stresses and the formation of new cracks, resulting in decreased compressive strength for all mixtures. In contrast, mixes with TGWA have a reactive nature that reduces the negative effect of ettringite formation, leading to a lesser loss in compressive strength with an increase in TGWA content. At 90 days, the TGW100-HPC mixture exhibited a strength reduction of 42.29 %, which closely resembled the 41.20 % reduction observed at 56 days. This indicates that the decrease in strength after 56 days was minimal.Fig. 12 Change in compressive strength of TGW-HPC mixes after acid attack.

Fig. 12

3.4 Microstructural

3.4.1 X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD)

After 28 days of hydration and exposure to an acidic medium, XRD analysis was conducted on HPC with and without TGWA to identify the mineralogical composition. Fig. 13 shows the X-ray diffraction obtained from the analysis. There was no definite pattern observed in the variation of the peaks corresponding to CSH with the addition of TGWA. The peaks associated with CASH overlap with the peaks associated with Ca (OH)2 and show a gradual reduction in peak intensities with the incorporation of TGWA. The above three minerals were also checked in specimens subjected to acid attack. It was observed that the intensity of portlandite reduces progressively with increased acid exposure time. At the same time, there is no creation of new peaks at angle 31, but there is an increase in the intensity of peaks at 14 and 29. This increase may be due to the formation of basanite because of the action of sulfuric acid on portlandite and CSH. The effect of acid on CSH in glass-incorporated samples is relatively lesser, as seen by the reduction in intensity of the peak at 50 associated with CSH. In the control sample, this peak vanishes after 28 days of exposure. Thernadite and CSH formation is a consequence of sulfuric acid attack, where it reacts with sodium oxide and portlandite in TGW-HPC.Fig. 13 XRD pattern for acidic attack.

Fig. 13

3.4.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

FTIR spectrum was performed on HPC samples incorporated with TGWA after 28 days of curing to inspect the change in chemical components at different replacement levels of TGWA, which has been revealed in Fig. 14. Results show that slight change in molecular groups when incorporated with TGWA. The molecular group of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) remains almost constant, up to 50 % replacement of average aggregate with TGW aggregate. An equivalent formation is seen when the Si–O bond's associated wavenumber is used (around 419 cm−1, 971 cm−1, and 1107 cm−1). There is a significant correlation between the increase and decrease of wavenumbers and the difference in compressive strength. When the replacement was limited to 50 %, the C–S–H gel was formed due to matured portlandite. Therefore, this leads to the developing of a denser structure, which enhances the composite mechanical performance. The CO32− bond's wavelength is nearly constant at 770 cm−1, and its stretching was observed at 1402 cm−1 for all mixes. Additionally, this band has a connection to methylene groups because de-molding oil contains organic compounds.Fig. 14 FTIR analysis of TGW-HPC samples (a) TGW0-HPC, (b) TGW50-HPC, (c) TGW100-HPC.

Fig. 14

3.4.3 Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)

FESEM images of TGW0, TGW50, TGW75 and TGW100 is shown in Fig. 15. The micrographs of the FESEM images were examined for the samples of hydrated portland cement (HPC) with different percentages of TGWA (0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 %, and 100 %) after 28 days of hydration. The images showed the presence of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) and calcium alumino-silicate hydrate (CASH) gel, which was further confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis as shown in Fig. 13. The TGW0-HPC acid attacked sample showed stronger bonding compared to the TGW100-HPC sample. Notably, the incorporation of TGWA in HPC mixtures did not lead to the formation of any new composite, as confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 13). Additionally, the presence of basanite was detected as a reaction product of Portlandite and sulfuric acid, which was also confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis at 22° (Fig. 13). The micrographs also revealed the presence of thernadite in TGW incorporated samples when exposed to an acidic medium. Reduction in strength due to the detachment of TGW aggregates from the cementitious matrix. Moreover, the formation of thernadite confirms the sacrificial nature of waste glass when concrete samples are exposed to H2SO4. The incorporation of waste glass in the HPC mixtures resulted in a smaller variation in both weight and compressive strength as shown in Fig. 10, Fig. 12 compared to the TGW0-HPC sample.Fig. 15 FESEM images of TGW-HPC mixes (a) TGW0 (b) TGW50 (c) TGW75 and (d) TGW100.

Fig. 15

4 Conclusion

The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the bonding strength and durability attributes of TGW-HPC in civil infrastructure projects emphasizing sustainability. It found that TGW50-HPC has improved bond strength than TGW0-HPC. Generally, lowering TGWA replacement levels tends to bolster bond strength and is likely due to the smoother TGWA surface in HPC mixes, resulting in less friction between steel and concrete. Notably, the minor rise in bond strength with TGW50-HPC had negligible effects on the overall result pattern. The following conclusions are drawn from the experiment.1. Increase UPV values with increased TGW aggregates in HPC mixes due to very low porosity, uniformity, and homogeneity of TGW aggregates.

2. Decrease in water absorption, permeability, and sorptivity due to lack of absorbent capacity of TGW aggregates. Impermeable voids between the interface of supplementary cementitious materials with cement matrix and TGW aggregates limit water penetration.

3. RCPT test results show that the HPC mix containing toughened glass waste as coarse aggregate, silica fume, and fly ash has a low permeability value in TGW100-HPC. The reactivity of supplementary cementitious material produces pozzolanic C–S–H. This extra C–S–H gel contributes to the compact microstructure, improving concrete's overall strength properties.

4. The chloride ion and hydraulic diffusivity through the structure is deduced from the permeability, water absorption, and sorptivity. The penetration of chloride ion and water molecules through the interconnected pore structure is 30–35 % lesser in TGW100-HPC compared to the TGW0-HPC provided by the strong ITZ bond between TGWA and the cement silica fume fly ash system.

5. Reduction in mass and compressive strength of TGW-HPC cubes after acid attack has been observed. TGWA surfaces do not chemically interact with water. Despite the addition of supplementary cementitious materials, the slippery nature of TGW aggregates caused a reduction in the mass and compressive strength of TGW-HPC mixes.

6. Microstructural analysis shows that the density and packing of TGW-HPC are proper and the formation of thernadite confirms the sacrificial nature of waste glass when concrete samples are exposed to H2SO4, which improves their results of TGW-HPC compared to conventional HPC mixes.

Funding

No funding

Data availability statement

No data or code was used during the study appear in the submitted article.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hariharan Surendran: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Punitha Kumar Akhas: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Vellore institute of technology, Vellore for providing all the support to carry out the research work.
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