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Scientifica (Cairo)
Scientifica (Cairo)
SCIENTIFICA
Scientifica
2090-908X
Wiley

10.1155/2024/5195390
Research Article
Floristic Inventory and Diversity Assessment at Two Locations along the Shores of Cape Coast, Ghana
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3608-9521
Dali Gertrude Lucky Aku gadali@ucc.edu.gh

https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0200-8233
Arthur Sethiler
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4247-1623
Essandoh Paul Kwame
Department of Environmental Science School of Biological Sciences University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
Academic Editor: Preet Amol Singh

2024
29 8 2024
2024 519539022 4 2024
3 8 2024
Copyright © 2024 Gertrude Lucky Aku Dali et al.
2024
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Coastal vegetation plays significant roles such as stabilization of the surface against wind and erosion, and provision of critical terrestrial and aquatic habitats for organisms. Floristic studies serve as a way of monitoring and evaluating the health of ecosystems. Currently, information on the floristic composition and diversity along the shoreline of Cape Coast is scanty. The study was aimed at assessing the impacts of anthropogenic activities on plant biodiversity along the shoreline of Cape Coast, Ghana. Thus, the study analysed the biodiversity of plants at the Hutchland beach (a disturbed area) and the Asasse Pa beach (a fairly undisturbed area). It was hypothesised that the Asasse Pa beach had a higher species diversity than the Hutchland beach. An inventory was made of all plant species found at both locations. A belt transect method was used for the ecological study, involving the use of a 1 m2 quadrat. All the plants that were found in each quadrat were identified, and the species and number of individuals of each species were counted—this information was used in the determination of the ecological parameters of the species and the locations. Parameters between the two locations were compared with a t-test, whereas variations in the distribution of the species were determined with principal components analysis (PCA), using Minitab and R statistical software, respectively. A total of 50 plant species belonging to 48 genera and 23 families were inventoried along the shoreline. The family Poaceae had the highest number of species, 10. The Asasse Pa beach had a higher species diversity and evenness of 2.84 and 0.84, respectively, whereas the Hutchland beach had a lower species diversity and evenness of 2.44 and 0.75, respectively. Anthropogenic activities at the Hutchland beach might have accounted for the lower species diversity and evenness there. The study therefore recommends periodic monitoring of coastal vegetation also law enforcement on coastal resources.
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pmc1. Introduction

Coastal ecosystems consist of coastal lands and nearshore marine areas, which are highly linked, with water serving as the enabler of almost all the linkages [1]. They are interfaces where the sea meets the land encompassing shoreline environments [2]. They may be broadly defined as the part of the sea influenced by the land and the part of the land that is influenced by the sea [3]. Some of the major habitats in the coastal ecosystems include wetlands, estuaries, coastal lagoons, mangrove forests, salt marshes, tidal areas, intertidal flats, rocky shores, coastal plains, reefs, and sandy beaches.

Globally, coastal ecosystems are found in 123 countries [4], including Ghana. Ghana has a coastline of 550 km [5]. Coastal areas serve as homes to billions of people who directly or indirectly use coastal ecosystems as their sources of livelihood [6]. There is continual migration of people from inland areas to the coastal areas [7]. Therefore, coastal populations are said to be increasing rapidly [1, 8]. It was projected that two-thirds of the world's population lives either in or around the coast [9]. An increase in coastal populations puts immense pressure on coastal vegetation.

The coastal inhabitants depend heavily on coastal ecosystems and their services such as storm buffering and fisheries, as well as homes to a wide range of biodiversity. For instance, plants or vegetation including mangroves and coconut trees along the coastline provide ecological services such as primary production, carbon fixation, and water filtering [10]. They also protect shorelines and hold back sediments from the effects of erosive processes including tides, waves, and storms. In addition, they play a significant role in stabilizing the surface against wind and erosion. Without vegetation, the transportable strata of coastal land erode and the surrounding area loses the safety of the coastal area [11].

Despite the enormous importance of coastal ecosystems, they are being destroyed and lost at alarming rates [12]. The global rate of coastal ecosystem loss was estimated as follows: mangroves, 1–3% [13]; seagrass meadows, 2–5% [14]; and corals, 4–9% [15]. These losses erode biodiversity, as well as the valuable ecosystem services they provide [16]. Coastal vegetation, for example, is being degraded due to human activities such as developmental projects going on along the shores. A study conducted in Ghana reported 11.79% and 15.05% reduction in coastal vegetation cover for the periods, 1996–2017 and 1996–2002, respectively [17]. Modifying the coastal environment to meet the needs of the society is causing severe effects, such as global warming, ecological collapse, mass extinction, and biodiversity loss [18]. The human-caused decline in plant biodiversity has dire consequences for the well-being of human beings themselves [19], as well as other organisms. Consequently, human influence on coastal ecosystems is considered one of the dangerous environmental threats of our time [6]. Furthermore, the Anthropocene is highly linked to the rapid loss of species and the vanishing of their major ecosystem functions [20]. Anthropocene is a term coined by Crutzen and Stoermer in 2000 to highlight that human impacts on the environment are as important as, or more important, than the impacts of natural forces or processes on the environment [21]. It thus refers to how human activities greatly altered conditions and processes on the entire Earth. The rate at which coastal vegetation is being degraded calls for a lot of attention. Hence, it is very necessary to monitor and put data together, to help improve the vegetation along the coasts. This study is very crucial since the outcome will provide baseline information necessary for monitoring the shoreline. This is because monitoring is one of the ways of protecting the shoreline and preventing it from rapid depletion, for the maintenance of its maximum benefits.

Undeniably, studies have been carried out around the world including Ghana on coastal vegetation. For instance, vegetation analysis and floristic of four communities were conducted in the Big Ball Hill region of Padre Island National Seashore [22]. The composition, structure, and diversity of coastal vegetation in the northeastern part of Cozumel in Mexico were also studied [23]. In Ghana, however, most of the studies on coastal vegetation generally focused on wetlands and mangrove ecosystems [12, 24–30]. Data on vegetation along the shores of Cape Coast are lacking. Therefore, this study sought to provide data on vegetation at two locations along the coast of Cape Coast, which on a whole, will help to conserve vegetation along the coast of Ghana. The study was undertaken with the following specific objectives: (1) to make an inventory of plants (herbs and saplings) along the shoreline of Cape Coast, (2) to determine the ecological parameters of plant species, and (3) to assess the impacts of human activities on plant biodiversity. It was hypothesised that the fairly undisturbed area (Asasse Pa beach) had a higher species diversity than the disturbed area (Hutchland beach). The outcome of this study would serve as baseline information on vegetation along the shoreline of Cape Coast and would also help reduce human activities along the shorelines, towards the conservation of biodiversity. Findings from the study may also contribute to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in line with life on land (goal 15), life below water (goal 14), climate action (goal 13), sustainable communities (goal 11), and poverty alleviation (goal 1). Goal 15 is to halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss; goal 14 is to conserve and sustainably use marine resources for sustainable development; goal 13 is to combat climate change and its impacts; goal 11 is to make communities safe, resilient, and sustainable; and goal 1 is to end poverty in all its forms everywhere. This research would, therefore, help address aspects of these goals.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study was carried out at two different locations, Hutchland and Asasse Pa beaches along the shoreline in Cape Coast (Figure 1). The Hutchland beach is a resort centre located along Cape Coast-Takoradi trunk road, about 4.2 km away from the University of Cape Coast. It lies between latitude 5°06′00.2″ N and longitude 1°17′38.2″ W, Cape Coast. Asasse Pa beach is an abandoned resort centre located in Bakano, close to the Fosu Lagoon, and about 6.1 km away from the University of Cape Coast and lies between latitude 5°06′08.2″N and longitude 1°15′13.6″W.

Along the shore of Cape Coast are a number of recreational and tourist facilities such as beach resorts and restaurants. The Cape Coast catchment experiences two peaks of wet season. The major peak occurs from May to July, whereas the minor peak occurs from September to December. Two dry seasons occur; the short one in August, and the long one from January to April, with February and March normally being the hottest months. Cape Coast is a humid area with mean monthly relative humidity varying between 85% and 99%. The soil type is mostly sandy soil, however, particles of mud intermittently mix with the sandy soil caused by wave actions that continually move these particles ashore [31]. Some plant species found along the stretch of the coastline are coconut trees (Cocos nucifera), Opuntia sp. Thespesia populnea, and Imperata cylindrica. However, detailed information on the plants along the shoreline of Cape Coast is very scanty.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Inventory and Sampling of Plant Species

Plant biodiversity along the shoreline of Cape Coast was assessed through botanical inventories, transects, and quadrats. Botanical inventories involved walking through different locations at the Hutchland (disturbed area) and Asasse Pa (fairly undisturbed area) beaches and picking and identifying the plant species [32]. A belt transect method was used to sample and quantify herbaceous plant species and saplings. Herbaceous plants are plants that have flexible, green, and nonwoody stems. Saplings are young trees with tender trunks. A transect line of 100 m was laid out along the shores at both study sites, using a surveyor's tape. A 1 m2 quadrat was placed on the first marked point on the line, and later at 10 m intervals, making a total of 10 quadrats per study location (Figure 2). All the plant species comprising herbaceous plants and saplings that were found within each of the quadrats were identified, counted, and recorded. The number of individuals of each species was also counted. Species that could not be identified on the field were labeled and counted and sent to the School of Biological Sciences Herbarium for identification, using manuals [33–36]. After the identification, all the species were classified into their taxonomic families using appropriate manuals. Each of the identified plant species was also categorized into growth forms or habits.

2.2.2. Data Analyses

The ecological parameters were determined for each of the species and the study locations as follows:(1) Density=Total number of individuals of a speciesTotal area studied,Frequency=Number of quadrat in which a species occursTotal number of quadrat studied×100%,Abundance=Total number of individuals of a species present in all quadrats Number of quadrats of occurrence of the species,Relative Density RD=Individual density of a speciesTotal density of all species×100%,Relative frequency RF=Individual frequency of a speciesTotal frequency of all species×100%,Relative abundance RA=Individual abundance of a speciesTotal abundance of all species×100%,Importance Value Index IVI=∑RD+RF+RA,Composition=Number of individuals of a speciesTotal number of individuals of all species×100%,Shannon−Weaver diversity index H′=−∑ρi In ρi,Evenness=H′InS,

where H′ is the Shannon–Weaver diversity index.(2) Similarity index β=2CS1+S2,

where pi = ni/N, ni is the number of individuals of the ith species, N is the total number of individuals, S is the number of species, S1 is the number of species in community 1, S2 is the number of species in community 2, and C = number of species common to both communities.

Dominance and abundance are two interchangeable characteristics that are mostly used together with density and frequency in the estimation of the Importance Value Index (IVI) in the studies of plant dynamics [37]. Since this study focused on herbaceous plants and saplings, abundance was used in estimating the IVI.

Species diversity and species evenness were calculated for each quadrat after which a Student's t-test was done to compare species diversity and species evenness between the two locations using, Minitab software. In addition, principal components analysis (PCA) was performed using R statistical software to show the variations in the distribution of the species along the coastline.

3. Results

3.1. Inventory of Plant Species along the Shoreline

A total of 50 plant species were found along the shoreline specifically, at the Hutchland and Asasse Pa beaches (Table 1). These species belonged to 48 genera and 23 families. Poaceae had the highest number of species, 10, followed by Amaranthaceae with five species. Families including Acanthaceae, Aizoaceae, Arecaceae, Cactaceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Passifloraceae, Phyllanthaceae, and Zygophyllaceae recorded only one species each. A majority of the plant species (86%) were herbs, while 8% and 6% of them were saplings of shrubs and trees, respectively.

3.2. Ecological Importance of Plants at the Hutchland Beach

A total of 25 plant species were found within the quadrats laid at the Hutchland beach. Dactyloctenium aegyptium had the highest ecological parameters (Figure 3). Its density, frequency, and abundance were 30.9 m−2, 70%, and 44.1 m−2, respectively. Other species that had high ecological parameters included Paspalum vaginatum, Canavalia rosea, and Diodia scandens. Species that had the lowest ecological parameters included Momordica charantia, Baphia nitida, and Schrankia leptocarpa.

D. aegyptium was the topmost ecologically important species, about 50% more than P. vaginatum, the second most ecologically important species at the Hutchland beach (Figure 4). While D. aegyptium had IVI of 58.2, that of P. vaginatum, was 29.7. C. rosea, and D. scandens were the next most ecologically important species with IVI of 28.8 and 18.8, respectively. The least ecologically important species were M. charantia and B. nitida, with IVI of 3.0 each.

3.3. Ecological Importance of Plants at the Asasse Pa Beach

A total of 29 plant species were sampled at the Asasse Pa beach. Tribulus terrestris and Lactuca taraxacifolia were the species with the highest and lowest ecological parameters, respectively (Figure 5). T. terrestris recorded density, frequency, and abundance of 12.5 m−2, 80%, and 15.63 m−2, respectively. L. laraxalifolia had density, frequency, and abundance of 0.2 m−2, 10%, and 2.0 m−2, respectively.

Overall, species of ecological importance at the Asasse Pa beach were T. terrestris, Cynodon dactylon, D. aegyptium, P. vaginatum, and Cyperus rotundus, with IVI of 32.16, 28.45, 26.63, 22.72, and 21.27, respectively (Figure 6). L. taraxacifolia and Schrankia leptocarpa were the species with the least ecological importance, with IVI of 2.31 and 2.73, respectively.

3.4. Ecological Parameters of Plant Species along the Coastline

The overall ecological parameters of plants along the shore are shown in Table 2. The species with the highest ecological parameters comprising IVI and composition of 19.1 and 35.4 5%, respectively, was Dactyloctenium aegyptium. It was about twice more ecologically important than other ecologically important species.

Paspalum vaginatum, Tribulus terrestris, and Cynodon dactylon were the next species of high IVI and compositions of 11.4 and 24.3%, 10.2 and 22.9%, and 9.06 and 20.5%, respectively. The species with the lowest IVI (1.49) and composition (0.13%) was Lactuca taraxacifolia. Images of some of the most ecologically important plant species are shown in Figure 7.

3.5. Ecological Community Parameters for the Asasse Pa and Hutchland Beaches

A total number of plants recorded at the Asasse Pa and Hutchland beaches were 29 and 25, respectively (Table 3). The species diversity and evenness were 2.84 and 0.84, and 2.44 and 0.75 for the Asasse Pa and Hutchland beaches, respectively. The difference in the species diversity of the two locations was significant (t = −6.34, p < 0.05), while that of species evenness was nonsignificant (t = −1.74, p > 0.05). The Similarity Index for Asasse Pa and Hutchland beaches was 0.54.

3.6. Principal Component Analysis of the Distribution of Plant Species along the Coastline

The PCA of the distribution of the plant species at each location yielded nine components or dimensions each. Five components accounted for 84.5% and 73.3% of the variations at the Hutchland and Asasse Pa beaches, respectively (Table 4). Component one (Dim.1) accounted for 22.5% and 19.7%, while component two (Dim.2) accounted for 20.3% and 15.7 5% of the variations at the Hutchland and Asasse Pa beaches, respectively.

Six species that contributed to the principal components at the Hutchland beach were Canavalia rosea, Indigofera hirsuta, Diodia scandens, Boerhavia diffusa, Paspalum vaginatum, and Cyperus rotundus (Table 5).

Dim. 1 and Dim. 2 accounted for 22.5% and 20.3% of the variations in the distribution of plant species at the Hutchland beach (Figure 8). The species that contributed most to the variations were Canavalia rosea, Cyathula prostrata, Amaranthus spinosus, Paspalum vaginatum, and Diodia scandens.

Six species that contributed to the principal components at the Asasse Pa beach were Tribulus terrestris, Ruellia tuberosa, Canavalia rosea, Paspalum vaginatum, Euphorbia heterophylla, and Alternanthera pungens (Table 6).

Dim. 1 and Dim. 2 accounted for 19.7% and 15.7% of the variations in the distribution of plant species at the Asasse Pa beach (Figure 9). The plant species that contributed most to the variations were Cyperus rotundus, Lactuca taraxacifolia, and Boerhavia diffusa.

4. Discussion

The goal of floristic or plant inventory is to produce a comprehensive list of plants found in a particular place at a particular time, to serve as a baseline for monitoring and evaluating future conditions. Floristic inventory is a general practice throughout the world to gather more information about plants in an area of interest [38]. Assessments of floristic composition and diversity are essential to understanding the present diversity status and conservation of plant biodiversity [39]. The total of 50 plant species encountered in this study is an indication that the shoreline of Cape Coast has different floristic compositions. This information is very vital in our attempts to protect our coastline because we can only protect our resource better, only when we know what it contains and how it functions. This is because floristic inventory provides important data for several purposes such as land management and biodiversity conservation. High coastal plant biodiversity is necessary for the maintenance of valuable coastal wetland ecosystem services such as flood regulation, sediment retention, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration.

Taxonomic information on species in an area provides an overview of the kinds of lineage and traits shared among the species. The Poaceae (grass or Gramineae) family recorded the highest number of species found in this study. This may be because of the ability of grasses to grow almost everywhere, throughout the globe [40]. Grasses are annual or perennial herbaceous, monocotyledonous plants with jointed stems (often hollow) with distinct nodes and internodes, and sheathed leaves. Poaceae is also the most economically important angiosperm family in the world [40, 41]. Considering the importance of Poaceae, the conservation of these species contributes not only to the ecological importance but also to the economic importance of the coastal environment.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium, family Poaceae, was the most ecologically important plant species found in the sampled areas along the shores of Cape Coast. This implied that it was frequently found in large numbers of individuals along the shores. This finding supports a recent study in India that reported D. aegyptium as one of the dominant grasses present in coastal habitats [42]. D. aegyptium is considered a pioneer grass species that swiftly occupies or colonises disturbed areas accumulated with water or close to the coasts [43]. This may explain why D. aegyptium dominated the Hutchland beach and was twice more ecologically important than the second ecologically important species. A study on alien and potentially invasive plants in lagoons in Mexico recorded the presence of D. aegyptium in three out of four lagoons [44], indicating how invasive this species can be.

Paspalum vaginatum was the next most ecologically important species, basically due to its high frequency and density. This implies that it was frequently present or common, as well as numerous along the shoreline. P. vaginatum is widely recognized as a serious invasive plant that rapidly transforms ecosystems and poses detrimental effects on those ecosystems [45]. P. vaginatum was found to be a serious threat to the ecological function and structure of wetlands in California [46]. Since there is inadequate data on the composition of species along the coast of Cape Coast, it is difficult to indicate whether P. vaginatum had changed the composition and structure of plants long the shoreline. However, its reportedly rapid invasive nature could have contributed to the smaller number of native seashore plants such as Opuntia ficus-indica, which did not occur in any of the quadrats thrown. Also, no sapling of Cocos nucifera, another typical coastline plant, was found within the quadrat throws. It is possible that the reduction in the number of Cocos nucifera along the coast also contributed to the high abundance of P. vaginatum. This is because it potentially outcompetes and inhibits germination of other delicate plants and displaces and eliminates recruitment of native species [46]. Adequate numbers of saplings are good indicators of successful regeneration ability of a vegetative community [47]. Tree regeneration generally refers to the process whereby a forest or plant community sustains itself through the growth and survival of seedlings and saplings that develop in situ [48]. Therefore, the absence or limited numbers of saplings in a plant community are indications of the presence of threatened trees. This implies that there is a high possibility that the native tree species might be prone to local extinction in the future, due to the absence of saplings of these trees [49].

Again, the density of P. vaginatum at the Hutchland beach (12.5 m−2) was higher than that at the Asasse Pa beach (8.3 m−2). This may also be due to the invasive nature of this species, making it thrive well in disturbed areas. This suggests that the species is stress-tolerant and can adapt to various anthropogenic activities [50]. Elsewhere, P. vaginatum was reported as the most abundant and possibly invasive plant species [44]. Biological invasion or invasive species often alter the composition of species on the ground flora, hence reducing plant diversity, and favouring exotic associations [51]. From the PCA, P. vaginatum was found to be among the six species that contributed to the principal components at the two beaches (Tables 5 and 6), an indication of its contributions to the variations in the species distribution along the shoreline. This may imply that P. vaginatum is an indicator species along the shoreline of Cape Coast.

Tribulus terrestris was also one of the most ecologically important species found at the shoreline. It had the highest frequency of occurrence along the shoreline (Table 2) and was the most ecologically important species at the Asasse Pa beach (Figure 5). It also contributed to principal components, thus, variations in the species distribution at the Asasse Pa beach (Table 6). T. terrestris has been widely known as an important medicinal plant for a very long time [52]. For instance, it is valued for its natural remedies, such as treatment for erectile dysfunction, stimulating the immune system [53], sexual disorders, infertility, chest pain, an enlarged prostate, and many other conditions. It could also have a potential for effective blood pressure control because of its diuretic, cardioprotective, and antihyperlipidemic activities [54]. Thus, it has a high and persistent use by the pharmaceutical industries which resulted in high production demands that raised the need for it to be semicultivated [52].

Although the pharmaceutical and international trade potentials were confirmed for T. terrestris, the plant was affected by changes in environmental factors [55]. Conservation and sustainable use of this species will be, therefore, beneficial to medicinal plant researchers and businesses [53], as well as herbal practitioners. This will in turn contribute to the prevention of loss of biodiversity and reduction in poverty, especially among the users of this plant and individuals along the coasts.

Floristic diversity reflects environmental conditions, physiognomy, and biotic influences of an area. Plant biodiversity indicates the number of different plant species found in a particular area, and it is often represented by species diversity. Species diversity is a standardized index that combines both the number of species in an area and the relative abundance of those species within that area. The result showed that the Asasse Pa beach had higher species richness and species evenness, which resulted in a higher species diversity (Table 3). The higher community parameters at the Asasse Pa beach could be linked to the relatively fewer anthropogenic activities at that place, compared to the Hutchland beach, where anthropogenic activities are more. The anthropogenic activities recorded at the Hutchland beach included the removal of vegetation cover, infrastructure development for commercial activities such as restaurant and recreational facilities, and waste disposal. These activities have resulted in environmental degradation including habitat fragmentation and plastic pollution. Higher species diversity means a higher number of equitably distributed individuals among the species habituating that area. Equitable distribution of resources such as water, nutrients, and light in a fairly stable community is almost certain [50], as shown at the Asasse Pa beach. This indicates that at the Asasse Pa beach, there was equitable utilisation of resources, and this resulted in equitable species distribution as well as coexistence among species, both young recruits and mature ones [50]. This assertion was reflected in the PCA, where minimal variations were observed in the percent variance at the Asasse Pa beach (Table 4), confirming a relatively uniform distribution of the plant species.

The Hutchland beach is a stamping ground in Cape Coast; therefore, human pressures such as stamping and packing of vehicles on the vegetation have resulted in habitat loss and degradation. These, in turn, affected the equitable distribution of species resulting in plant biodiversity loss. The lower species diversity observed at the Hutchland beach was probably due to the inequitable distribution of resources brought about by severe human impacts at that beach. The consequent effects of high human activities such as waste generation from the recreational centre and restaurant tend to favour the establishment and growth of non-shoreline plants [50]. This phenomenon might have resulted in increased competition between shoreline and non-shoreline plants for resources, which might have accounted for the lower species diversity and uneven distribution, as well as high differences in percent variance from the PCA. This may explain why the Hutchland beach recorded more invasive weeds including Dactyloctenium aegyptium and Paspalum vaginatum as the ecologically important species.

Invasive plant species are recognized as one of the major threats to biodiversity worldwide [56]. In Ghana, the availability and distribution of invasive alien species have been a serious threat to Ghana's biodiversity for many years [57]. Invasive species are regarded as one of the most challenging environmental problems of the 21st century and the second factor causing biodiversity loss [58].

Since species diversity is a widely used tool for measuring the ecological integrity of ecosystems worldwide, the outcome of this study suggests that anthropogenic activities along the shores are having detrimental effects on plant biodiversity along the shorelines of Cape Coast. This is of great concern because species loss can reduce ecosystem functioning and eliminate species that would otherwise improve ecosystem functioning [59]. Moreover, coastal and wetland ecosystems are most vulnerable to invasive threats, whereas the remaining ecosystems show better resilience to invasive threats [60]. Hence, attention must be directed at maintaining plant biodiversity in the coastal areas, to ensure their sustainability.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that an attempt was made in this study to inventory plant species along the shoreline of Cape Coast, Ghana, and assess the impacts of human activities on the species composition, as well as on the shoreline ecosystem. From the study, it was clear that human activities along the shoreline have impacted negatively on this ecosystem, comprising the plant composition and distribution. This confirmed the hypothesis that the disturbed area had a lower species diversity due to human activities. There is an urgent need to reduce human activities along the shores to help maintain a stable ecological balance.

Mitigation strategies such as planting coconut trees along the shoreline to restore the coastal habitat, regular clearing of invasive species to ensure the establishment of young recruits of the native species, and the protection of the coastal habitats by having regular beach clean-up will help increase plant biodiversity along the coastline. It is suggested that policymakers, including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development, and the Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly enforce regulations on human activities along the coastline. The coastline is regarded as an ecologically sensitive habitat, hence, there must be enforcement of the laws and regulations related to coastal habitats. Continuous and regular monitoring of the activities along the coastline, in addition to effective public awareness and education, will help to maintain healthy coastlines in Ghana. Also, collaboration between policymakers and the coastal inhabitants is very necessary to ensure the long-term sustainability of our coastal habitats. This also calls for an integration of strategic coastal planning and integrated zone management into regional spatial planning for effective coastal protection.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Mr. Felix Fynn at the School of Biological Sciences Herbarium, University of Cape Coast, for his assistance in the field data collection and identification of the plant species. They also thank Miss Gertrude Tibu of the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Cape Coast, for designing the study map.

Data Availability

All the data that were gathered for this study were analysed, interpreted, and presented within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors' Contributions

Gertrude L.A. Dali conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, validated, analysed, and interpreted the data, prepared the original draft, and reviewed and edited the manuscript; Sethiler Arthur collected, organized, and analysed the data; Paul K. Essandoh helped in data analyses, supervised the study, and reviewed the manuscript. All the authors have read and agreed to the final version of the manuscript.

Figure 1 Map showing Hutchland and Asasse Pa beaches.

Figure 2 Sampling of plant species.

Figure 3 Ecological parameters of plants at the Hutchland beach.

Figure 4 Importance value indices of plants at the Hutchland beach.

Figure 5 Ecological parameters of plants at the Asasse Pa beach.

Figure 6 Importance value indices of plants at the Asasse Pa beach.

Figure 7 Images of some of the most ecologically important plant species.

Figure 8 Correlation circle showing the covariates in a two-dimensional plot (Dim.1 × Dim.2) at the Hutchland beach. Cr = Canavalia rosea, Ih = Indigofera hirsuta, Ds = Diodia scandens, Bd = Boerhavia diffusa, Pv = Paspalum vaginatum, Cyr = Cyperus rotundus, Gc = Gomphrena celosioides, Ac = Axonopus compressus, Da = Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Tt = Tribulus terrestris, Cd = Commelina diffusa, Pa = Physalis angulata, Tp = Trianthema portulacastrum, Rt = Ruellia tuberosa, Cyd = Cynodon dactylon, Bn = Baphia nitida, As = Amaranthus spinosus, Cp = Cyathula prostrata, Am = Abutilon mauritianum, Aa = Aspilia africana, Oc = Oldenlandia corymbosa, Sl = Schrankia leptocarpa, Pha = Phyllanthus amarus, Mc = Momordica charantia, Chp = Chloris pilosa.

Figure 9 Correlation circle showing the covariates in a two-dimensional plot (Dim.1 × Dim.2) at the Asasse Pa beach. Tt = Tribulus terrestris, Rt = Ruellia tuberosa, Cr = Canavalia rosea, Pv = Paspalum vaginatum, Eh = Euphorbia heterophylla, Ap = Alternanthera pungens, Ih = Indigofera hirsuta, Cyd = Cynodon dactylon, Bd = Boerhavia diffusa, Pl = Pupalia lappacea, Ll = Lactuca taraxacifolia, Sp = Spororobolus pyramidalis, Sl = Schrankia leptocarpa, Cb = Capraria biflora, Cyr = Cyperus rotundus, Gc = Gomphrena celosioides, Ds = Diodia scandens, Chp = Chloris pilosa, Spf = Setaria pallide-fusca, Da = Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Ceb = Cenchrus biflorus, Ce = Cyperus esculentus, Mv = Malvastrum coromandelianum, Tp = Trianthema portulacastrum, Ac = Axonopus compressus, Cd = Commelina diffusa, and Ic = Imperata cylindrica.

Table 1 List of plant species and their taxonomic families.

Families	Species	Habit	
Acanthaceae	Ruellia tuberosa Linn.	Herb	
	
Aizoaceae	Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.	Herb	
	
Amaranthaceae	Alternanthera pungens H.B. and K.	Herb	
Amaranthus spinosus Linn.	Herb	
Cyathula prostrata Linn.	Herb	
Gomphrena celosioides Mart.	Herb	
Pupalia lappacea Juss.	Herb	
	
Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera Linn.	Tree	
	
Asteraceae	Aspilia africana (Pers.) C. D. Adams	Herb	
Lactuca taraxacifolia (Willd.) Schumach	Herb	
Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn. Linn.	Herb	
	
Cactaceae	Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.	Shrub	
	
Caesalpinaceae	Cassia occidentalis Linn.	Shrub	
	
Combretaceae	Terminalia catappa Linn.	Tree	
	
Commelinaceae	Aneilema beniniense (P. Beauv.) Kunth	Herb	
Commelina benghalensis Linn.	Herb	
Commelina diffusa Burm.f.	Herb	
	
Cucurbitaceae	Momordica charantia Linn.	Herb	
	
Cyperaceace	Cyperus esculentus Lativum	Herb (sedge)	
Cyperus rotundus Linn.	Herb (sedge)	
Mariscus longibracteatus Chermezon	Herb (sedge)	
	
Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia heterophylla Linn.	Herb	
	
Mimosaceae	Schrankia leptocarpa DC.	Herb	
	
Malvaceae	Abutilon mauritianum Mill.	Shrub	
Malavastrum coromandelianum Linn.	Herb	
Sida cordifolia Linn.	Herb	
Thespesia populnea Linn.	Tree	
	
Nyctaginaceae	Boerhavia diffusa Linn.	Herb	
	
Papilionaceae	Baphia nitida Lodd.	Shrub	
Canavalia rosea Sw.	Herb	
Indigofera hirsuta Linn.	Herb	
	
Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. and Thonn.	Herb	
	
Poaceae	Axonopus compressus Sw.	Herb (grass)	
Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.	Herb (grass)	
Chloris pilosa Sw.	Herb (grass)	
Cynodon dactylon Linn.	Herb (grass)	
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv.	Herb (grass)	
Imperata cylindrica Linn.	Herb (grass)	
Panicum maximum Jacq.	Herb (grass)	
Paspalum vaginatum Linn.	Herb (grass)	
Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf and C.E. Hubb.	Herb (grass)	
Sporobolus pyramidalis P. Beauv.	Herb (grass)	
	
Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea Linn.	Herb	
Talinum triangulare Jacq.	Herb	
	
Rubiaceae	Diodia scandens Sw.	Herb	
Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.	Herb	
	
Scrophulariaceae	Capraria biflora Linn.	Herb	
	
Solanaceae	Physalis angulata Linn.	Herb	
Solanum lycopersicum Linn.	Herb	
	
Zygophyllaceae	Tribulus terrestris Linn.	Herb	

Table 2 Ecological parameters of species along the coastline.

Plant species	Frequency (%)	Density (m−2)	Abundance (m−2)	RF	RD	RA	IVI	Composition (%)	
Abutilon mauritianum	5	0.6	6	0.88	0.38	1.46	2.72	0.38	
Alternanthera pungens	5	1.9	19	0.88	1.19	4.64	6.7	1.19	
Amaranthus spinosus	5	0.7	7	0.88	0.44	1.71	3.02	0.44	
Aspilia africana	5	0.9	9	0.88	0.56	2.2	3.64	0.56	
Axonopus compressus	15	4.4	14.67	2.63	2.75	3.58	8.96	2.75	
Baphia nitida	5	3.2	32	0.88	2	7.81	10.7	2	
Boerhavia diffusa	10	4	20	1.75	2.5	4.88	9.14	2.5	
Canavalia rosea	45	13.1	14.56	7.89	8.19	3.55	19.6	8.19	
Capraria biflora	10	1.2	6	1.75	0.75	1.46	3.97	0.75	
Cenchrus biflorus	5	0.7	7	0.88	0.44	1.71	3.02	0.44	
Chloris pilosa	10	3.2	16	1.75	2	3.91	7.66	2	
Commelina benghalensis	5	0.7	7	0.88	0.44	1.71	3.02	0.44	
Commelina diffusa	20	3.6	9	3.51	2.25	2.2	7.96	2.25	
Cyathula prostrata	5	0.5	5	0.88	0.31	1.22	2.41	0.31	
Cynodon dactylon	25	14.5	29	4.39	9.06	7.08	20.5	9.06	
Cyperus esculentus	15	3	10	2.63	1.88	2.44	6.95	1.88	
Cyperus rotundus	35	8.8	12.57	6.14	5.5	3.07	14.7	5.5	
Dactyloctenium aegyptium	40	30.5	38.13	7.02	19.1	9.31	35.4	19.1	
Diodia scandens	25	6	12	4.39	3.75	2.93	11.1	3.75	
Euphorbia heterophylla	5	0.5	5	0.88	0.31	1.22	2.41	0.31	
Gomphrena celosioides	40	4.6	5.75	7.02	2.88	1.4	11.3	2.88	
Imperata cylindrica	5	1.2	12	0.88	0.75	2.93	4.56	0.75	
Indigofera hirsuta	30	5.2	8.67	5.26	3.25	2.12	10.6	3.25	
Lactuca taraxacifolia	5	0.2	2	0.88	0.13	0.49	1.49	0.13	
Malvastrum coromandelianum	10	1.1	5.5	1.75	0.69	1.34	3.78	0.69	
Oldenlandia corymbosa	5	0.4	4	0.88	0.25	0.98	2.1	0.25	
Paspalum vaginatum	45	18.3	20.33	7.89	11.4	4.96	24.3	11.4	
Phyllanthus amarus	5	0.9	9	0.88	0.56	2.2	3.64	0.56	
Physalis angulate	10	1.7	8.5	1.75	1.06	2.08	4.89	1.06	
Pupalia lappacea	10	0.9	4.5	1.75	0.56	1.1	3.42	0.56	
Ruellia tuberosa	25	3.3	6.6	4.39	2.06	1.61	8.06	2.06	
Schrankia leptocarpa	10	0.7	3.5	1.75	0.44	0.85	3.05	0.44	
Setaria pallide-fusca	5	0.5	5	0.88	0.31	1.22	2.41	0.31	
Spororobolus pyramidalis	5	0.8	8	0.88	0.5	1.95	3.33	0.5	
Trianthema portulacastrum	10	1.6	8	1.75	1	1.95	4.71	1	
Tribulus terrestris	50	16.3	16.3	8.77	10.2	3.98	22.9	10.2	

Table 3 Ecological community parameters for Asasse Pa and Hutchland beaches.

Parameters	Asasse Pa beach	Hutchland beach	
Total number of species	29	25	
Species diversity	2.84	2.44	
Species evenness	0.84	0.75	
Similarity index	0.54	

Table 4 Eigen values and their contributions to the correlations.

Principal components	Hutchland beach	Asasse Pa beach	
Eigen values	% Variance	Cumulative % variance	Eigen values	% Variance	Cumulative % variance	
Dim.1	5.6165640	22.466256	22.46626	5.517674	19.705977	19.705977	
Dim.2	5.0864637	20.345855	42.81211	4.409201	15.747145	35.45312	
Dim.3	4.1236742	16.494697	59.30681	4.266154	15.236265	50.68939	
Dim.4	3.6798869	14.719548	74.02636	3.497027	12.489381	63.17877	
Dim.5	2.6120959	10.448383	84.47474	2.829861	10.106648	73.28542	

Table 5 Plant species contributions to the principal components at the Hutchland beach.

Plant species	Principal components	
Dim.1	Dim.2	Dim.3	Dim.4	Dim.5	
Canavalia rosea	13.707287	2.20256122	0.038105747	0.01281043	0.3073411	
Indigofera hirsuta	2.520391	1.72921640	0.012691190	2.00590679	2.1509604	
Diodia scandens	2.176985	9.51301855	0.996490995	1.83626549	5.9457669	
Boerhavia diffusa	2.443092	0.08100227	0.121780688	0.12843257	0.5212651	
Paspalum vaginatum	12.421262	0.70862135	0.009113107	1.21853253	3.7494968	
Cyperus rotundus	9.013198	2.61003831	0.319548784	0.07049547	3.3558014	

Table 6 Plant species contributions to the principal components at the Asasse Pa beach.

Plant species	Principal components	
Dim.1	Dim.2	Dim.3	Dim.4	Dim.5	
Tribulus terrestris	2.7248285	7.8209746	2.000249	1.5691474	4.593095811	
Ruellia tuberosa	8.5147856	0.2577918	7.895065	3.5647933	0.322024280	
Canavalia rosea	1.4595604	0.7487461	4.097613	0.0999524	0.289033179	
Paspalum vaginatum	0.4534599	8.9252092	2.068040	6.5198438	0.008339793	
Euphorbia heterophylla	1.7221234	3.8137320	2.915294	14.3518880	1.916900639	
Alternanthera pungens	1.7221234	3.8137320	2.915294	14.3518880	1.916900639
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